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COPYRIGHT DEPOSnv 




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INSECT PESTS 



OF 



FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



E^DWIGHT ^ANDERSON 

DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY 
DIRECTOR WEST VIRGINIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 



FIRST EDITION 
FIEST THOUSAND 



NEW YORK: 
JOH^ WILEY & SONS 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
1912 






c.^t'^ 



CDPYnitiHT, 1012, 



E. DWIGHT SANDERSON 



THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS 

ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANY 

BROOKLYN N. Y. 



sin m^ W\U 



PREFACE 



The edition of the writer's " Insects Injurious to Staple Crops," 
first published ten years ago, having been exhausted, the pub- 
lishers requested a revision. It was found, however, that the 
advances in economic entomology during the past decade were such 
that it was necessary to practically rewrite the book. At the 
time it was first published two other books were projected; one 
to deal with the insects affecting garden crops, and the other to 
discuss those affecting fruits. Pressure of regular work pre- 
vented the author from completing the manuscript for these 
works and in 1907 Dr. Chittenden issued his excellent book on 
" Insects Injurious to Vegetables," so that there seemed to be 
no immediate demand for another volume on that subject. At 
the same time two other well-known entomologists were work- 
ing upon books which would cover fruit insects, so that the 
writer abandoned the field to them. Subsequently, the work 
of one of these friends was cut short by his sudden death, and 
the other abandoned the task, at least for the present. 

Under these circumstances, it seemed that there was a distinct 
place for a book to cover all the insects affecting the crops of 
farm, garden and orchard, and having leisure to devote to it, the 
author developed the work in its present form. 

It has been the author's effort to discuss all of the more impor- 
tant insects of farm, garden and orchard at sufficient length 
to give a clear idea of their life histories and habits, and also the 
best means of control, so that the book may be used as a reference 
work both by the student of economic entomology and by 
the practical farmer, gardener, or fruit-grower. Insects of minor 



VI PREFACE 

or local importance have been purposely omitted. The insects 
of practically all of the leading crops are considered, except the 
citrous fruits. With these the author is unfamiliar, l)ut it is 
hojXHl to atld a chapter upon them by a competent authority 
in a subsequent edition. In general, the discussion of insects 
and their control as given is based upon conditions east of the 
Rockies, and practically no consideration has been given to the 
conditions of the Pacific Coast or of the irrigated country of the 
far West. 

The author is well aware that there are doubtless many errors 
of fact or of wrong emphasis in these pages. Such must nec- 
essarily be the case in a work the greater part of which must be 
compiled. All of the leading authorities on the subjects discussed 
have "been consulted and the writer has endeavored to present 
their (evidence fairly, with such interpretation as his personal 
knowletlge made possible. He will be greatly indebted to those 
who will aid him in securing the accuracy of the work by report- 
ing any errors or by suggesting improvements in it, as it is hoped 
to revise the pages from time to time so that they may serve 
as a reliable reference work upon our insect pests of the farm, 
the garden, and the orchard. 

On the following pages are given the sources from which 
the illustrations have been secured, but the author wishes to 
express his special appreciation of the very large number of figures 
which were furnished him by Dr. L. 0. Howard, Chief of the 
Bureau of Entomology, and Mr. J. A. Arnold, Chief of the 
Division of Publications, of the United States Department of 
Agriculture, either as electrotypes or original drawings or photo- 
graphs, and to Ginn & Company of Boston for the loan of 
numerous electrotypes made for an Elementary Entomology by 
Prof. C. F. Jackson and the writer, now being published by 
them. 

E. Dwi(;ht Sanderson. 
West Virginia University, 
mokgantown. 



SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



The author wishes to express his very sincere appreciation 
of the courtesy extended him by those friends mentioned below 
who have furnished or loaned him electrotypes, photographs or 
drawings, thus making possible the ample illustration of this 
volume. 

From the United States Department of Agriculture, through 
the courtesy of Dr. L. 0. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of 
Entomology and of Mr. J. A. Arnold, Chief of the Division 
of pubHcations, the following illustrations were secured, either 
as electrotypes or as new plates made from the original drawings 
or photographs: Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 24, 50, 53, 55, 59, 61, 66, 83, 
85, 86, 88, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 
110, 113, 114, 117, 124, 125, 126, 127, , 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 
133, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 
150, 153, 154, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 170, 
171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 
187, 188, 189, 192, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 
207, 208, 211, 216, 218, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 
230, 231, 232, 235, 236, 240, 241, 242, 244, 246, 247, 248, 257, 258, 
262, 264, 265, 266, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 277, 281, 283, 285, 
292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 304, 306, 307, 325, 326, 
353, 354, 355, 356, 377, 379, 394, 395, 396, 398, 400, 401, 402, 
404, 406, 413, 431, 432, 438, 446, 449, 472, 474, 475, 480, 487, 
490, 496, 497, 502, 503, 504, 505, 508, and 512. 

The following illustrations were originally prepared by Dr. 
C. V. Riley and have been secured from various sources: Figs. 
5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 54, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 74, 75, 76, 77, 



viii SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

78, 79, 80, 98, 99, 107, 147, 152, 212, 213, 214, 215, 220, 243, 
259, 260, 261, 320, 473. 

Dr. S, A. Forbes, State Entomologist of Illinois, Urbana, 111., 
kindly furnished the following: Figs. 50, 51, 56, 58, 120, 121, 122, 
123, 151, 156, 157, 234, 299. 

Prof. G. W. Herrick of the Cornell University Agricultural 
Experiment Station furnished electrotypes and photographs of 
the following illustrations by Dr. Slingerland: Figs. 57, 84, 87, 
249, 250, 251, 253, 254, 338, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 360, 361, 
362, 363, 364, 373, 381, 382, 383, 384, 422, 437, 482, 483, 485, 
486, 495, 498, 499, 500, 501, 513. 

Prof. F. L. Washburn, State Entomologist of Minnesota, 
kindly furnished the following and also some of the figures of 
Dr. Riley listed above: 81, 330, 343, 350, 351, 378, 380, 491. 

Prof. H. A. Gossard of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment 
Station furnished the following: 89, 108, 341, 342. 

Prof. R. H. Pettit, Entomologist of the Michigan Agricultural 
Experiment Station, furnished the following: 92, 100, 245, 
and 341. 

Prof. C. P. Gillette, Director of the Colorado Agricultural 
Experiment Station, supplied figures 229, 239, 352, 439, 450, 
506, 507, and 511. 

Dr. J. B. Smith, Entomologist of the New Jersey Agricultural 
Experiment Station, loaned the following and also some of the 
Riley figures: 13, 20, 109, 209, 210, 303, 308, 309, 323, 324, 
327, 334, 335, 336, and 337. 

Prof. P. J. Parrott kindly sent photographs of the following 
from the files of the New York State Agricultural Experiment 
Station: Figs. 340, 349, 399, 465, 466, 493, 494, 509, 510. 

Prof. W. E. Rumsey of the West Virginia Agricultural Exper- 
iment Station kindly loaned photographs of the following: 357, 
358, 359, 367, 368, 369, 370, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 441, 444. 

Prof. H. Garman of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment 
Station furnished Figs. 97, 165, 166, and 238. 

Director R. W. Thatcher of the Washington Agricultural 
Experiment Station furnished Figs. 237, 328, 329, and 339. 



SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix 

Dr. S. J. Hunter of the University of Kansas loaned electro- 
types of Figs. 112 and 113. 

Prof. T. B. Symons of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment 
Station loaned electrotypes of Figs. 119, 267, 310, 311, 312, 
313, and 314. 

Prof. H. E. Summers of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment 
Station loaned drawings of Figs. 154, and 333. 

Director P. H. Rolfs of the Florida Agricultural Experiment 
Station loaned photographs of Figs. 169 and 302. 

Director T. C. Johnson of the Virginia Truck Experiment 
Station furnished copy for Figs. 217 and 269. 

The Orange Judd Company of New York City kindly furnished 
electrotypes of Figs. 219, 301 and three of the Riley figures. 

Director J. C. Kendall of the New Hampshire Agricultural 
Experiment Station loaned the following electrotypes and several 
of the author's illustrations: 34, 43, 49, 118, 256, 322, 397, 417, 
445, 447 and 448. 

Director S. W. Fletcher of the Virginia Agricultural Exper- 
iment Station and Dr. E. A. Back of the Virginia Crop Pest 
Commission furnished the following: Figs. 36, 393, 440, 442, 
and 443. 

Dr. W. E. Britton, State Entomologist of Connecticut, fur- 
nished electrotypes and photographs of the following: Figs. 41, 
284, 305, 390, 416, 426, 429, 430, 477, 478, 479. 

Prof. R. I. Smith of the North Carolina Agricultural Exper- 
iment Station furnished photographs of Figs. 280, and 291. 

Prof. A. L. Quaintance furnished photographs of Figs. 282, 
286, 287, 288, 289, and 290. 

Director F. B. Mumford of the Missouri Agricultural Exper- 
iment Station loaned Figs. 434 and 435. 

Prof. C. S. Crandall of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment 
Station, loaned drawings of Figs. 436 and 492. 

Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. furnished Fig. 221, from the 
Riverside Natural History. 

The Friend Manufacturing Company contributed Fig. 45. 
The Deming Company furnished Figs. 27, 28, 30, 33, and 39. 



X SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

l'\ E. JMycr.s c*c JJru. furiii.slictl Fig.s. 213 and 15. 

The Spramotor Company supplied Fig. 31. 

E. C. Brown & Co. donated Figs. 32 and 40. 

The Goulds Manufacturing Company supplied Fig. 4G. 

The folloAving figures are original or are the author's illus- 
trations: 6, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 25, 37, 38, 42, 44, 46, 
47, 48, 52, 70, 71, 72, 73, 82, 111, 134, 135, 177, 178, 179, 190, 
191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 233, 252, 255, 263, 268, 275, 276, 
278, 279, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 331, 332, 391, 392, 403, 405, 
407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 414, 415, 418, 419, 420, 421, 433, 
451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 
464, 465, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 481, 483, 488, and 489. 



CONTENTS 



Preface v 

Sources of Illustrations and Acknowledgments vii 

CHATTER PAGE 

I. Injury to Crops by Insect Pests 1 

II. Beneficial Insects, Predaceous and Parasitic "J 

III. Structure and Development of Insects 22 

IV. Farm Methods for the Control of Insects 32 

V. Insecticides ^12 

VI. Spraying and Dusting Apparatus 60 

VII. Insects Affecting Grains, Grasses, Forage and Mis- 

CELL/^NEOUS CrOPS 79 

VIII. Insects Injurious to Small Grains 121 

IX. Insects Injurious to Corn 157 

X. Insects Injurious to Stored Grains 186 

XI. Insects Injurious to Clover 200 

XII. Insects Injurious to Tobacco 222 

XIII. Insects Injurious to Cotton 241 

XIV. Insects Injurious to the Hop-plant 273 

XV. Insects Injurious to Potatoes and Tomatoes 285 

XVI. InsECTS Injurious to Beans and Peas 305 

XVII. Insects Injurious to Beets and Spinach 330 

XVIII. Insects Injurious to Cabbage and Cruciferous Crops . . . 347 

XIX. Insects Injurious to Melons, Cucumbers, Squash, etc. . . 379 

XX. Insects Injurious to Miscellaneous Garden Crops .... 402 

XXI. Insects Injurious to the Sweet Potato 430 

XXII. Insects Injurious to the Strawberry 441 

XXIII. Insects Injurious to the Raspberry and Blackberry... 459 

XXIV. Insects Injurious to the Currant and Gooseberry 477 



xii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXV. Insects Injurious to the Grape 492 

XXVI. Some Insects Injurious to Orchard Fruits 538 

XXVII. Insects Injurious to the Apple and Pear 582 

XXVIII. Insects Injurious to the Peach, Plu.m, Cherry and 

Stone Fruits 645 

Index 671 



INSECT PESTS 

OF 

FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



CHAPTER I 
THE INJURY TO CROPS BY INSECT PESTS 

Ever since the locust plagues in the time of the Pharaohs his- 
tory is replete with accounts of insect scourges and the enormous 
losses they have caused the agriculturists of all ages. However, 
instead of diminishing with the advancement of agricultural 
methods, injurious insects have undoubtedly become both more 
numerous and more destructive in modern times. " In no coun- 
try in the world do insects impose a heavier tax on faim pi-oducts 
than in the United States. The losses resulting from tlie depre- 
dations of insects on all the plant products of the soil, both in 
their growing and in their stoi-ed state, together with those on 
live stock, exceed the entire expenditures of the National CJov- 
ernment, including the pension roll and the maintenance of the 
Army and the Navy."* " Yery careful estimates, based on ci-op 
reports and actual insect damage over a series of years, show 
that the loss due to insect pests of farm products, including 
fruits and live stock, now reaches the almost inconceivable total 
of .11,000,000,000, annually."! The above quotations from Mr. 
C. L. Marlatt, Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, 

* C. L. Marlatt, Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1904, p. 461. 
t C. L. Marlatt, Journal of Economic Entomology. IV, 109. 



2 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

United States Dcpai'tincnt of Agriculture, may appear to the 
readcM- either ludicrous or startling, according to whether he be 
more or less informed concerning the important role which insects 
play in our agricultural economy, which in turn foims the warp 
of American prosperity. 

A l)rief resume of the records of damage done l)y insect pests, 
of the cost of fighting them, and of the estimates which form the 
basis of the above statement, will make it the more convinc- 
ing. 

Growing Cereals. — Probabl}' no other insect does so widespread 
damage as the Hessian fly, attacking our chief staple, wheat, as 
well as rye and barley. One-tenth of the whole crop, valued 
at $50,000,000 to $70,000,000, is generally conceded to be de- 
sti'oyed liy this pest every year. In certain sections the loss often 
amounts to from 30 to 50 per cent, and in 1900 was estimated 
at fully 1100,000,000 (Marlatt, I.e.). The southern grain louse 
or " green bug " caused a loss estimated at from $5,000,000 to 
$10,000,000 in Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas in 1907, and every 
yeai' there is a considerable shrinkage of the wheat crop due to 
the work of vai'ious species of plant-lice whose injury (loul)tless 
amounts to 2 or 3 per cent of the crop, woith $15,000,000 to 
$20,000,000. 

The corn crop of the United States was worth $1,720,000,000 
in 1909. One of the worst pests of this ciop in the Mississippi 
\'alley is the chinch-bug. Several years ago Professor F. M. 
Webster estimated the loss from this insect since 1S50 at 
$330,000,000. and at present it pr()l)al)ly desti'oys at least 2 per 
cent of the corn crop every year, worth over $30,000,000, and in 
many yeai's the loss is nnich nioi-e. The western corn root-worm 
aii<l the corn root-aphis wiiich work unnoticed on the roots 
of the coi-n thi'oughout the same tei'i-itory cause an e(|ual loss. 
The corn ear-worm often destroys from 5 to 10 pvr cent of the 
crop in the South, and throughout the Corn Belt it undoubted!}' 
decreases tiic crop l)y 2 or 3 p(M- cent. 

The total value of cereal crops in the United States in 1909 
was practically $3,000, 000. 000, which was un<loul)tedly d(>civased 



THE INJURY TO CROPS RY INSECT PESTS 3 

by 10 per cent due to the ravages of insect pests, which tlius 
taxed our grain growers some $300,000,000. 

Hay and Forage Crops. — A host of small insects attack our 
grasses and forage crops, many of them being so small that they 
are unnoticed, though their aggregate injury is something enormous. 
Of the larger pests of grasses and forage plants the army worms 
are among the l^est known and have often caused a loss of over 
half a million dollars to a single State in one season. Grass- 
hoppers of various species are also always more or less injurious 
and often become a serious menace. Probably the most seiious 
injury, however, is done by subterranean larvte such as the cut- 
worms, wnreworms, white gi-ubs, and wel)worms, which breed in 
sod land, and by the hordes of little leaf-hoppers which are 
always prevalent, but whose injury often passes unnoticed. Ten 
per cent of the hay crop was worth $65,000,000 in 1909, and this 
is a fair estimate of the damage done to hay and forage crops 
by their insect enemies. 

Cotton. — The cotton plant has a numl)er of injuiious insect 
enemies, of which the boll weevil, bollwoi-m, and leafworm are 
the most injurious. In 1904 the writer made a statistical study 
of the decrease in the cotton crop of Texas due to the l)oll 
weevil, and showed that it was then costing that State $25,000,000 
per annum.* This estimate has been confirmed by independent 
investigations made by Mr. W. D. Hunter of the U. S. Bureau 
of Entomology, and although the loss in Texas is not so serious 
at present, the weevil has spread eastward into Alabama, so 
that its total injury i-emains practically the same, and has 
undoubtedly been a large factor in the higher price of cotton 
in recent years. The boUworm is most injurious in the south- 
western cotton-pi'oducing States, where it causes a loss of from 
5 to 60 per cent of the crop. The total damage to cotton by 
the boUworm is appi'oximately $20,000,000 per annum and not 
infrequently exceeds that amount. In IS.SO the United States 

* E. D. Sanderson, The Boll Weevil antl the Cotton Crop of Texas. (Bul- 
letin Dept. of Agriculture, Insurance, Statistics and History, Austin, Texas, 
190.'). p. 28, 7 maps.) 



4 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Entomological Commission made an investigation of the cotton 
worm and valued its ravages at $30,000,000, but with the 
extensive use of Paris green and arsenical poisons its injury has 
been greatly reduced and now amounts to from $5,000,000 to 
$10,000,000 annually. Various minor pests of the cotton plant 
infiict a considerable amount of local injury and with the above 
pests damage the crop at least 10 per cent, worth $85,000,000 
in 1909. 

Tobacco. — Tobacco is attacked by insects, which form one 
of the chief " bugbears " of tobacco growing, at all stages of its 
existence. Ten per cent of the crop, worth $10,000,000, is cer- 
tainly destroyed by them every year. 

Truck Crops. — Truck crops are peculiarly susceptible to 
insect attacks, and their control forms one of the chief items in 
the co.st of production. It is safe to say that truck crops suffer 
from insect ravages fully twice as much as do the staples, or 20 
per cent of their total value. Statistics are not available for 
the present value of truck crops, but they were probably worth 
$300,000,000 in 1909, making the insect tax for the trucker 
fully $60,000,000. 

Fruits. — Fruit trees are also much more seriously injured 
by insects than are the staple crops, and their control involves 
a large expense to the fruit-grower. Where it is not combated, 
the codling moth, or apple worm, would cause a loss of from 
30 to 50 per cent of the crop, and where it is controlled by 
spraying a considerable expense is involved. The loss and cost 
of treatment for this pest alone amount to $20,000,000 for the 
United States, and were it not for the fact that it is now largely 
controlled in the principal fruit-growing sections, the loss would 
l)e double or treble this sum. The loss due to the San Jose scale 
is difficult to estimate, but it is well known that it has destroyed 
millions of trees and that in the principal fruit regions where this 
pest is prevalent it is necessary to treat the trees annually 
at a cost of from 10 to 25 cents per tree, so that $10,000,000 a 
year would be a very conservative estimate of its annual cost, 
r^oth deciduous and citrous fruits have a host of insect pests, 



THE INJURY TO CROPS BY INSECT PESTS 5 

always present and doing more or less damage and occasionalh^ 
becoming so abundant as to threaten the life of the trees or their 
crops. Twenty per cent of the value of our fruit products, 
worth at least $30,000,000, is certainly destroyed by insect 
pests every year. 

Forest Insects. — Only those who have had opportunity to 
observe the ravages of insects in timber and in timber products 
can appreciate the enormous losses which they occasion. Prob- 
ably no one is better informed upon this matter than Dr. A. D. 
Hopkins, in charge of the Forest Insect Investigations of the 
U. S. Bureau of Entomology, who has made a life study of these 
pests in all parts of the country. In a recent circular he states * 
that " the amount of insect-killed and damaged timber left in the 
woods, plus the reduction in value of that utilized, to be charged 
to insects is not far from an equivalent of 10 per cent of the value 
of the annual output of forest products of all kinds, in the rough. 
The total value of the forest products of the United States in 1907 
is given as $1,280,000,000; the losses from insect depredations 
would therefore represent an annual loss in cash value of more 
than $100,000,000." To this should be added a similar loss to 
farm woodlots, which may be estimated at an additional $10,000,- 
000. The insect injury to the shade trees of city streets, parks, 
and estates should also be mentioned, for such pests as the gypsy 
moth, the elm leaf-beetle, tussock moths, etc., are not only causing 
enormous losses and large expense for their control, but they are 
often destroying the values of real estate and through killing the 
trees are destroying the scenic value of property and changing the 
esthetic environment in a manner which it will require many 
decades to remedy, if the previous conditions can ever be even 
partially reproduced. The State Forester of Massachusetts has 
recently shown that the New England States and the Federal 
Government have spent fully $7,000,000 in fighting the gypsy and 
brown-tail moths in New England, and at the present time the 
New England States, the P^ederal Government, municipalities and 
private individuals are spending fully $1,000,000 per annum 
* A. D. Hopkins, Circular 129, Bureau of Entomology, U. S, Dept. X^r. 



6 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

ill this warfare for the preservation of their shade and forest 
trees. 

Live iStock. — Insect pests, including the ticks and mites, are 
ahnost as important as enemies of live stock as of crops. The 
principal drawback to cattle raising in the South is the Texas 
fever, transmitted by the cattle tick, which has been charged by 
the officials of the Bureau of Animal Industry with a loss of $100,- 
000,000 annually. The ox-warble, which causes the " grubby " 
hides of cattle, causes a loss estimated at from $10,000,000 to 
$35,000,000 per year due to the depreciated value of the hides and 
the lessened quantity and poorer equality of the beef of affected 
animals. The screw-worm fly is a constant annoyance to cattle and 
source of loss on the range, and numerous biting and parasitic flies 
cause a considerable loss to the grower of live stock, both through 
actual damage and through the annoyance preventing growth and 
production. The sheep scab, sheep tick, the sheep bot— causing 
"staggers" or "grub-in-the-head " — horn-fly, buffalo-fly, black-fly, 
and numerous species of lice which affect all of the domestic ani- 
mals, are among the pests which must be combated by the stock- 
man. In 1909 the live stock products were worth $3,000,000,000, 
and it is estimated that fully 10 per cent of this amount >was lost 
through injury from insects. 

Stored Products. — Even after the crops have been gathered 
and garnered, and indeed after they and animal products have 
l)cen manufactured, they are constantly subject to the attacks of 
numerous "weevils," "moths," and other insect pests of stored 
products. Every housewife and every merchant knows that only 
through constant surveillance can they prevent these ravages. 
Mills, tobacco warehouses, storage houses, and vessels, must be 
frequently cleaned and often must be fumigated to prevent the 
increase of insect pests peculiar to them. It is estimated that at 
least 5 per cent of the cereal crops are destroyed by insects while 
in storage, which would mean a loss of $150,000,000, and in many 
cases the loss to corn, particularly in the South, is much greater. 
The total loss due to insects in stored goods of all kinds is impos- 
sible to estimate, but would fall not far short of $200,000,000. 



THE INJURY TO CROPS BY INSECT PESTS 



With this brief survey of the losses ckie to insect pests, we may 
summarize them in a table which will show that the total is based 
upon conservative estimates. 

Annual Values of Farm Products and Losses Chargeable 
TO Insect Pests * 



Product. 


Values. 


Percentage of 
I^oss. 


Amount of Loss. 


Cereals 


$3,000 000 000 


10 


$300,000,000 

66,500,000 

85,000,000 

10,000,000 

150,000,000 

9,500,000 

30,000,000 

11,000,000 

10,000,000 

300,000,000 


Hay and forage 


665,000,000 10 
850,000,000 in 


Cotton 


Tobacco 


100,000,000 

t 300,000,000 

95,000,000 

t 150,000,000 

110,000,000 
t 100,000,000 
3,000,000,000 


10 
20 
10 
20 
10 
10 
10 


Truck crops 


Sugars 


Fruits 


Farm forests 


Miscellaneous crops 

Animal products 


Total 

Natural forests and forest 
products 


$8,370,000,000 




$972,000,000 
100 000 000 


Products in storage 






200,000,000 








Grand total 






$1,272,000,000 







* Based upon table of C. L. Marlatt, I.e., modified by .statistics of the Secretary of 
.\griculture, Yearbook U. S. De))artment of AKriculture for 1909. 
t E.stimated. 

One billion dollars is thus a conservative estimate of the 
damage done to staple crops, fruits, truck crops, domestic animals, 
timber and stored products by these apparently insignificant 
insects. 

Yet there is another aspect to the matter. '' One man's loss 
is another man's gain" is never more true than as regards these 
losses occasioned by insects; for, through widespread injury by 
them, prices rise, while if these injuries did not occur and corre- 
spondingly large crops were placed upon the market, prices must 
surely fall. These estimates of losses due to insects are then very 
largely comparative. Yet, to a large extent, they are still real 
losses, the same as are those occasioned by fire and storm; for 



8 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

though a small crop may bring Ijettcr prices, it is usually at the 
expense of individuals or communities which have sustained ex- 
ceptionally heavy losses. Were these losses evenly distributed 
among all those producing a given crop, there would be no real 
hardship to them; but such is by no means the case. 

All this, then, goes to emphasize the fact that the successful 
farmer — as the successful man in any other trade or profession-^ 
is the one who is able to overcome obstacles which, though pos- 
sibly ruining his neighbor, are making a good market for his special 
crop; for these insect pests can be largely overcome. The millen- 
nium will doubtless come before the farmer will be able to stop 
fighting them, but a large part of the damage by them can be pre- 
vented at a cost which renders it profitable. Rational methods of 
general farm practice with the proper use of apparatus and insecti- 
cides, even such as are now known, and in which improvements 
are being constantly made, if intelligently used by American 
farmers, would save to them the larger part of this enormous loss. 



CHAPTER II 
BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 

Ladybird-beetles 

After his strawberries have been ruined by the strawberry 
weevil, the garden truck by cutworms, the wheat despoiled by the 
Hessian fly, the melon-patch fallen a prey to plant-licc, and the 
fruit crop has been a failure on account of the codling moth, plum 
curculio, and San Jose scale, it is scarcely surprising that the 
farmer does as one of my acquaintances did and "orders the hands 
to kill everything that crawls." 

But such would be entirely too heroic a measure, and if strictly 
adhered to the remedy would be as bad as the disease, for it would 
mean not only useless labor, but the destruction of the most effect- 
ive means whereby insect pests are held in check. We pride 
ourselves — and justly — that with our spray pumps and deadly 
sprays many crops can be effectually protected; but were it not 
for those other insects which feed upon these injurious forms, 
what an enormous, and, in some instances, almost futile task it 
would be ! 

Among these beneficial insects the little ladybird-beetles of 
the family Coccinellidce are entitled to be in the first rank. 
Almost all the beetles and larvae feed upon plant-lice and scale 
insects. Of such value are those feeding upon scale insects 
that not many years ago several Australian species were 
imported into California that they might prey upon the San 
Jose and other scales. One of these was eminently successful 
and almost completely destroyed the cottony cushion-scale. 

Of those feeding upon plant-lice, one of the most common 
is the Nine-spotted Ladybird {CoccineUa novemnotata) . This 

9 



10 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

beetle is about one-fourth of an inch long, with black head and 
body. The wing-covers are orange-yellow marked witli nine 
black spots — four on each side and one on the centi"al suture. 
The larva has been fancied to resemble a miniature alligator; 
it is nearly twice as long as wide, almost black, marked with 
bluish and orange spots, and has long legs, which carry it around 
tjuite rapidly. The beetles hibernate during the winter and 
come forth in the spring and lay their eggs wherever the young 
will be able to find food when they hatch. When the larva 
has satisfied its ravenous appetite and become full grown it 
fastens itself to a leaf or twig, — seemingly by its tail, if such 





Fig. 1. — The nine-spotted ladybird {Cocci mila noveinnuUita), and its 
larva enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

a term might be allowed, — transforms to the pupa, and in a week 
or ten days the adult beetle emerges from the pupal skin. This 
life-cycle is repeated several times during the sunnner season, 
before the fall brood enters winter quarters. 

Another very common form among plant-lice on garden truck 
is the little Adalia bipunctata, or Two-spotted Ladybird. It is 
slightly smaller than the preceding, and with only one l)lack spot 
on each wing-cover (Fig. 2). 

Several other species in the genus Hippodamia are very 
useful, and among them the Convergent Ladybird {Hippo- 
damia convergens) is one of the best known. Its name is received 
from two white dashes on the black thoiax, which converge 
posteriorly. The thorax has also a white margin, and there are 



BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC U 

thirteen black dots on its orange wing-covers. These larvae 
and beetles are very common among the plant-lice on melon- 
vines, and are an important factor in their extermination. They 




Fig. 2. — The two-spotted ladybird (Adalia bipunctata): a, larva; b, moutli- 
parts of same; c, claw of same; d, pupa; e, adult; /, antenna of same; 
all enlarged. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 




Fig. 3. — The convergent ladybird (Hippodamia convergens) : a, adult; b, pupa; 
c, larva; enlarged, (.\fter Chittenden. U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

have also been noted for eating the black peach aphis and many 
other plant-lice. 

A form which is often very abundant among plant-lice on corn 
is the Spotted Ladybird (Meyilla macidata). The head, thorax, 
and wing-covers are a dark pink, with two black spots on the 



12 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

thorax and ten on the wing-covers. Such numbers of these 
Httle fellows have frequently been found huddled together under 
the rubbish at the base of some tree in a last year's cornfield 
that they might be taken up by the handful without difficulty. 



j(aa3:*xa^ 




Fig. 4. — The spotted ladyljird {Megilla maculuta): a, larva; b. pupa; c, adult; 
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



Many other species feed upon plant-lice, but the above are the 
most common, and all bear a resemblance to one another, being 
generally orange or red with black spots, and of a characteristic 

round or oval form, flattened below, 
so that the legs may be drawn in 
under the wing-covers. 

Those ladybirds which feed upon 

,^ •• scales are much smaller and are 

Fig. 5. -The twice-stabbed '^la^k, though sometimes spotted 

ladybird {ChUocorua hivulnc- with red or orange. 

ru6). a, adult; 6 larva; en- ^^ f^^. ^^^ ^,^^^^.j ^j^^j.^ j^ ^^^ 

larged. (After Riley.) 

way in which these useful allies 

may be encouraged or increased in numbers, but it is trusted 
that the above may give such a brief view of their habits that 
fewer may be killed through ignorance concerning their true 
worth. 





BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC i'S 

Syrphus-flies 

Besides the little beetles described above there is a family 
of flies, the Syrphidoe, many of whose larvae feed upon plant- 
liee. This family is a very large one, and thus the habits of its 
different members vary considerably. One of them, th(^ drone- 
fly, so closely resembles a honey- 
bee as to be almost indistin- 
guishable from it. The larva of 
this fly (Eri stalls tenax) is one 
of the common rat-tailed mag- 
gots which are found in putrid 
matter. It is thought that the 

old " bugonia " superstition of t-, ^ ^, , .... 

° ^ riG.6. — Sj/rphus ribemi; enlarf^ed. 

the ancients that bees came from 

maggots in dead aninmals, etc., was due to the confusion of this 

fly with honey-bee. 

In another group of the family, the adult flies of which also 
quite closely resemble bees, the larvae are parasitic in the nests 
of honey- and bumble-bees, feeding upon their larvae. 

But the larvae of possibly the most typical poi-tion of the 
family, embracing the genus Syrphus and its near allies, are 
entirely predaceous upon plant-lice. Rarely can a colony of 
plant-lice be found without some of these little enemies hard 
after them. 

The adult syrphus-fly is a very striking insect, with its dark 
green metallic thorax, and abdomen variously banded with 
yellow and black. The female fly lays her eggs upon some plant 
bearing plant-lice. The larvie which hatch from these are elongate, 
flattened maggots, about one-half an inch long, with hardly a 
trace of a head, but with four small hooks, which serve as jaws, 
projecting from the more pointed end of the body. These mag- 
gots are often of a light-green color, and so like the color of 
the plants as to render them most difficult to recognize. The 
young larvae at once commence crawling over the plant in search 
of aphids, and as soon as they come in contact with one it 



11 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

is firmly clasjxwl l)y the small liooldcts until the juices art- sucked 
from its hod}'. In this niannci- very large nundx'rs are destroyed, 
a single maggot of the American Syrphus-fly (Si/rphuii americanus) 
having been observed to eat twenty-five apple plant-lice {Aphis 
pomi) in as man}- minutes. When the larva is ready to pupate 
it attaches itself to a leaf, and the larval skin dries up and forms 
a case or puparium inside of which the pupa remains until it 
transforms to the adult fly. 

Though most of these larvae feed upon plant-lice upon the 
leaves, one of them, the Root-louse Syrphus-fly {Pipiza radicans), 
lives entirely underground during that stage, and feeds upon 




Fig. 7. — The root-louse syrphus-fly {Pipiza radicans). a, maggot; h, 
puparium; r, fly. (After Riley.) 

the root-lice of the apple and the grape. None of this family 
are injurious, and as a large portion of them are so beneficial 
as to frequently destroy whole broods of plant-lice, they should 
not be disturbed in their good work if possible to avoid it. 

The Ground-beetles 

If, as you scrape away the loose chips at the base of a tree 
in your door-yard, turn over an old log in the woodland, or pick 
up a fallen fence-rail, you will scrutinize the inhabitants under 
these shelters, a number of shining black beetles varying in length 
from one-fourth to 1\ inches will usually l)e noticcnl. If the city 
reader be not so fortunate as to be familiar with or have access 
to these hiding-places, he may find large numbers of the beetles 
vmder any (>lectric arc light during the warm summer evenings; 
for there they iwv having a sumptuous l)anquet upon the small 



BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC lo 

flies and moths attractctl by the glare. They are rarely seen 
at large during the day, as they are almost exclusively nocturnal 
insect>s, and from theii- habit of remaining almost entirely in or 
on the ground they are usually known as " Ground-beetles." As 
might therefore be inferred, they are exceedingly valuable to the 
farmer by destroying large numbers of noxious insects which 
pass a part or all of their existence in the soil. Besides the 
glossy black forms which are most commonly seen, many are 
brilliantly marked with gold, green, purple, and iridescent tints. 
The Fiery Ground-beetle (Caloso/na calidiun), so called on 




Fig. 8. — The fiery grountl-heetle {Culoi^onia culidum). a, beetle; b, larva; 
c, " the searcher " (Calosoma scrutator). (After Riley.) 



account of the wing-covers being dotted with bright gold, has 
many times been of great assistance in helping to rid 'a corn-field 
of cutworms. The larvae of this insect are about one inch in 
length, of a dark brown color, with the skin of a hard, horny 
texture like that of the beetle. They have strong, prominent 
jaws, and at the posterior end of the body is a forked appendage 
looking much like another pair of jaws. It is not only surpris- 
ing that these larvie will eat so large a number of cutworms, 
as they have frequently been known to do, but that they will 
dare to attack such a formidable creature fully three or four 
times as large as themselves, but their assault is sharp and 
vigorous, and a single larva has often l)een seen to kill and eat 



16 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



several i'ull-giown cutworms in a short time. Many instances 
of the good work of this beetle aie on record, among which one 
by the late Professoi- J. A. Lintner may be cited, where he found 
them eating large numbers of the corn-crambus — sometimes 
locally known as the corn bud-worm. Another somewhat larger 
beetle, called by Professor J. H. Comstock " the Searcher" (Calo- 
soma scrutator), and in fact one of the largest of the family, is a 
brilliant metallic green, bordered with a dark purplish-blue, and 
has the good quality of having a very particular appetite, causing 
it to kill large numbers of caterpillars, but eating only part of each. 
While in the earth as pupa? large numbers of the Colorado 
potato-beetles are destroyed by members of 
this family, and one species, Lebia grandis, 
which is peculiar in that the wing-covers are 
somewhat abbreviated, thus leaving the tip 
of the abdomen exposed, has been noticed on 
the plants eating the eggs and young larvse of 
this old potato pest. 

Another valuable species is one called by 
Dr. Riley the Murky Ground-beetle (Harpalus caliginosus) . Its 
larva is of considerable assistance to fruit-growers by eating 




Fig. 9 . — Lebia gran- 
dis. (After Riley.) 




Fk;. 10. — The murky ground-beetle {Harp<ilu!< caliginosus): adult at left; 
a, larva; b, head of same; f, mandible, (.\fter Riley.) 

large numbers of curculio larva', which it secures from the plums 
after they have fallen to the earth. From a glance at its formid- 
able jaws, Fig. 10, b-c, it is easy to conjecture the fate of many a 
curculio grub. 



BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 17 



Thus here again are found some '' bugs " that are friends and 
not foes, worthy of all the protection that can be afforded them, 
and well repaying such careful observation of their habits as may be 
bestowed upon them. 

Insect Parasites 

Though large numbers of injurious insects are annually de- 
stroyed by those which are purely predaceous upon them, man}' 
more succumb to those minute forms which live parasitically 
within them. A few of these parasites belong to the order Diip- 
tera, or true flies, but most of them are classed in the order Hymen- 
opt era, in which order are also included the saw-flies, ants, wasps, 
and bees. 

Of the half-dozen families of hymenopterous parasites one of 
the largest and most beneficial is that of the Ichneumon-flies. 
The illustrations will best show the form and structure of these 
insects, which the casual 
observer will hardly be 
able to disti-nguish from 
other families of the group. 
But it will be noticed that 
the fine veins of the wings 
vary considerably in the 
ilift'erent parasites figured, 
and it is by these that the 
entomologist is enabled 
to separate the diff"erent 
groups and often to iden- 
tify the species at a glance. 
Both this and the follow- 
ing family are peculiar in 

having an exceedingly long ovipositor or egg-tube, of which they 
make a very good use. It is with this extensile tube that the 
female deftly punctures the skin of some unsuspecting cater- 
pillar, and under it inserts her eggs. In a few days there hatch 
from these a host of young maggots which feed upon the juices an;l 




'ui. 11. — Maggots of Phnpla inquisitor, a 
parasitic Ichneumon-fly, feeding on a cater- 
pillar which had spun its cocoon and was 
ready of pupate. 



18 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



tissues of the caterpillar, but are seemingly careful to avoid injur- 
ing any of its vital organs, for as soon as the caterpillar reaches 
its full growth it changes to a pupa, apparently unaffected. 
When the maggots have reached theii' full size each spins up a 
small silken cocoon inside the pupa, entirely filling up its now dead 
shell, and instead of a beautiful moth appearing in the spring, 
a horde of small flies are seen to emerge from a round hole in the 
side of the pupa, or cocoon. 

Thus large numbers of such pests as the apple-tree tent-cater- 
pillar {Clisiocampa ameri- 
cuna), bagwoi-ms {Thyridop- 
teryx ephemenvformiii) , cater- 
pillars of the swallow-tailed 
butterflies which feed upon 
parsley, carrots, etc., and a 
host of others, are consumed 
by membei's of this family. 

Those belonging to the 
genus Ophion are partial to 
the large American silkworms 
which produce some of our 
largest and most beautiful 
moths, and difficulty is fre- 
(|uently experienced in rear- 
ing a desii-ed number of moths 
on account of the large per 
cent of cocoons parasitized. 
The species of the family 
limconidcp are very similar to 
those of the preceding one, and contain some equally beneficial 
insects, feeding as they do upon such pests as the codling moth, 
webworms, plum-curculio grubs, plant-lice, etc. Some of the more 
common forms of this family Ix'long to the genus Microydster, and 
their small white cocoons may frequently be seen almost covering 
one of our large tomato- or tobacco-worms (see page 234) , the pupae 
of which are often known as "horn-blowers." Many mistake 




Fig. 12. — Tlie long-tailed Ophion {Ophion 
macrurum). a, advilt; fc, maggot; 
enlarged. (AftiT Riloy.) 



BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 19 




these cocoons for the eggs of the worms, and therefore destroy 
some of their best friends. Though some thus spin their cocoons 
on the outside of the host, others remain inside of the parasitized 
insect until the adult fly 
emerges. Thus dead plant- 
lice may often be found with 
a large round hole in the ab- 
domen — the only evidence 
of where one of these para- 
sites has emerged. For this 
reason dry, shrunken plant- 
lice should never be de- 
stroyed. 

The Chalcis-flies, which 
comprise another closely re- 
lated family, are exceedingly 
minute insects, sometimes 
not over one one-hundredth Fig. 13.— A plant-louse parasite {Apkidius 
of an inch lono'. They are avenaphis) , showing above the parasitized 
. ' louse from which it has issued. (Copied 

generally ot a metallic black from J. B. Smith.) 

coloi', and the usual veins of 

the wings are almost entirely absent. Many of these flies are 
parasitic upon plant-lice, while a large number of their larv:e live 
and mature in the eggs of other insects. 

Very similar to the chalcis-flies in their habits of infesting 
plant-lice and insect eggs are some even smaller insects — in fact 
the smallest known, the largest Vjeing rarely over one-twenty-fifth 
and the snuillest only six- or seven- one-thousandths of an inch in 
length — with a correspondingly ti-emendous and \uipronounceable 
name, known to science as the Proctotrypuhc. 

During the last half century the American farmer has been 
compelled to contend with an increasing numl^er of insect pests, 
which now and then have become vei'itable scourges. Every now 
and then we hear of communiti(\s assenil)ling for pray(M- and fasting 
to appease the Almighty, whose wi'ath has hurled a new insect 
plague against them, but such a procedure is l)y no means as com- 



20 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

mon as formerly, and little reflection will show that these scourges 
are entirely due to natural causes. In fact they are very largely 
brought about bj- man himself. Some of these pests are due to the 
fact that in trying to subdue nature by clearing and cultivating the 
land, man has deprived the insects of their natural food plants. 
They must, therefore, needs feed upon that which is substituted 
by him, and as it is less abundant than the former wild vegeta- 
tion, the number of insects and the injury they inflict are more 
apparent. 

By far the larger number of our worst pests, however, are those 
which come to us from foreign shores. Foreign insects are con- 
stantly being imported in one way or another, sometimes being 
already established pests in other lands and sometimes only becom- 
ing so under their new surroundings. These are even more injuri- 
ous than those native, for whereas many of our native birds, in- 
sects, and diseases constantly prey upon native insects and thus 
keep their numbers in check, the enemies of imported pests rarely 
accompany them, and they thus increase at an alarming rate and 
do enormous damage before they are attacked by the natural 
enemies of similar native pests. It is in the case of these imported 
pests that the value of parasitic and predaceous insects is most 
apparent. In an effort to make use of them to fight' the gypsy 
and Ijrown-tail moths in New England, the U. S. Bureau of Ento- 
mology has for several years been importing large numbers of the 
parasites and predaceous enemies of these pests and liberating 
them in affected regions, thus carrying on a practical experiment 
on a large scale which may show the importance of these parasites 
in combating imported pests. 

Even with our native pests, however, we have frequent exam- 
ples of the value of parasitic and predaceous enemies. Thus the 
southern grain louse, or "green bug," was soon brought under 
control by the myriads of little parasites which pi-cycd ui)on it 
(.see page !•").")), and these were artificially transpoited foi' some 
distance and liberated in large numbers. Though these efforts at 
the distribution of this pai-asite may be open to some question 
as to their effectiveness, other parasites have been "successfully 



BENEFICIAL INSECTS, PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC 21 

distributed, and there can be no question that before long we 
shall come to better understand how we may make use of these 
valuable allies, and some day we may be able to duplicate the 
apparent miracle by which Dame Nature sweeps away an insect 
plague in a few days with the aid of these apparently insignificant 
parasites. 



CHAPTER III 



STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 

The more experience the farmer has with insect pests, the 
more he comes to reaHzc that if he wouhl successfully combat 
them, he nuist have a certain amount of necessary knowledge 
concerning their structure and growth. 

In general, the artificial means which may l)e effectually 
used to combat an insect pest will depend more or less upon 
the anatomical structure of the insect, while control by general 
methods of culture will depend upon a knowledge of the peculiar- 
ities of its life-history. The value of a proper undcrstantling of 
these important factois in insect control is therefore apparent. 

General Structure of an Insect 

The body of an insect is composed of three separate parts, 

the head, thorax, and abdomen 
(Fig. 1-4), each of which is com- 
posed of several rings or segments. 
To the head are attached the 
jointed antenna', or feelers, the 
compound eyes, and the mouth- 
parts, which are described below. 
Each of the three segments of 
the thorax bears a pair of legs, 
and adult insects usually possess 
one or two pairs of wings upon the 

F,ci.l4.-Honoy-bcc, showing the last two segments of the thorax, 
three principal regions of the body The abdomen is composed of nine 
ofan insect:-/*, head; </., thorax; ^^, ^^^ segments, but bears no 
aha, abdomen. *= ' 

appendages save the ovipositor of 

the females of certain orders. 

22 




STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 23 

Harvest-mites, or " daddy-long-legs," sow-bugs, thousand- 
legged worms, and similar vermin are often popularly called 
insects, but all of them can readily be distinguished from true 
insects by their possessing more than six legs, the harvest-mites 
and spiders having eight and the others many more. 

How Insects Grow 

With rare exceptions insects hatch from eggs laid b}' the 
adult females. Upon hatching they are but little larger than 
the eggs, and often bear but little resemblance to their parents. 
Thus the young caterpillar would never be i-ecognized as the 
immature stage of the butterfly by one unfamiliar with its transfor- 
mations. Grasshoppers and some other insects, however, upon 
hatching from the egg bear a marked resemblance to the adult 
form, except that they lack wings. 

Complete Metatnorphosis. — When the caterpillar hatches 
from the egg it at once commences to feed and grows veiy 
rapidly, but before long an obstacle to further growth arises. 
Unlike higher animals, insects possess no intei'nal skc^leton or 
framework foi- tiu^ organs of the body, l)ut the outer skin l)ecomes 
hardened and to it the muscles and ligaments are attached. This 
hardening of the skin is best seen in the horny wing-covers of the 
beetles, and is due to the secretion of a hai'd substance called 
chitin. This chitin is secreted by all parts of the skin in greater 
or less degree, and thus forms a sort of shell for the whole body. 
Though this hardening is not so apparent in larvae as in adult 
insects, it is always present, and it is for this reason that when the 
young caterpillar has made a certain growth it is forced to shed its 
skin, which refuses to expand further, in order to develop more 
fully. Thus the skins of insects are shed several times (see Fig. lo, 
/>), — usually five or six, but sometimes as many as twenty, this 
process being known as moltinrj. During its life as a caterpillar, 
which is called the hirvnl stage, and during which it is called a 
larva, it is an elongate, worm-like creature, with six short, 
jointed legs on the three thoracic segments, a pair of fleshy false 
legs or pro-legs on the last abdominal segment, and probalily 



24 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

several pairs of pro-legs between these and the true legs. No 
traces of wings can be seen, but the body is often covered with 
hairs, spines, or warty tubercles. 

With the next molt the insect changes in appearance most 
radically, becoming a j)upa, or chrysalis, as this stage is termed 




I'm. 15. (\)mplete metamorphosis. The diftnciu siaircs .>1 the com ear- 
worm {Heliothis oh><oletn Fab.): a. eggs on corn-silk; b, the first tnree 
larval stages; c, pupa from below; d, same from above; e, adult moth- 
all enlarged; b, about twice natural size. 

for butterflies. Dui'ing the })tip:il stage the insect remains 
dormant either in a small cell slightly under the stirface of the 
earth, or in a silken cocoon spun ])y the cateipillar, or merely 
attached to the food-plant by a strand of silk or the cast lar\al 
skin. In many of the Diptera,— the order including flies, mos- 
quitoes, gnats, etc — however, llio last larval skin is not shed. 



STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 25 

but hardens and forms a case — called a pupariuni — within which 
the pupal stage is passed. 

The typical pupa (Fig. 15, c, <l) of a butterfly or niotli re- 
sembles neither the adult insect nor the larva, is of a more or 
less oval shape, with the wings and antennae tightly folded at 




Fi3. 16. — Incomplete metamorphosis of a bug {Brachymena i-pustulata): 
a, eggs; b, adult bug; c, different stages of young bugs or nymphs. 

the sides, the legs drawn up snugly together under them, and the 
head and mouth-parts bent upon the breast, or sternum, though 
all of these parts are not always recognizable, the legs and mouth- 
parts being sometimes lacking. Gradually the adult insect 
develops, and at last the pupal skin is broken open and the airy 
butterfly emerges to enjoy a short life and perpetuate the species. 



26 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Such ii series of ti'ansfoniiations is that coininonly i'ouiul among 
butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), beetles (Coleoptcra) , flies 
(Diptei-a), and bees (Hymenoptera), and is known as a complete 
ifietdnior pilosis. All of these insects normally pass through 
four stages, of egg, larva, i)upa, and adult. 

I ncomplete Melainorphosis. — In contrast to tliis mode of 
development is that of the grasshoppers (Orthoptera), bugs 
(Hemiptera), and some other insects. As already stated, these 
are nuich like the adult upon emerging from the egg. With 
(>ach molt they become larger and small wing-like pads gradually 
appear on the sides of the thorax. Then* is no dormant or pupal 
stage, the adult insect differing from the pievious stages in liav- 
ing fully developed wings, being larger, and often by an accompany- 
ing change of markings. The immature stages of such insects 
are called ni/mphs, and this development an incomplete meta- 
morphosis, having but three stages, of egg, nymph, and adult 
(Fig. 16). 

The time occupied by the complete life-cycle of an insect 
varies from a week or ten days for the plant-lice to thirteen or 
seventeen }-ears for some cicadas, and is entirely dependent 
upon the habit of the species and the climate. A correct knowl- 
edge of the exact time and conditions under which the trans- 
formations occur for each individual insect pest is therefore often 
most essential when seeking means for its control. 

How Insects Feed 

The material to be used in combating a given insect is largely 
dependent upon the structure of its mouth-parts. Much Paris 
green is wasted upon insects unable to eat it and which it will, 
therefore, never kill. 

Insects may be roughly divided into two classes, those which 
bite and those which suck their food. Among the former are 
the beetles, grasshoppers, the larvae of Initterflies and moths, 
and the larvae of saw-flies; and among the latter are butterflies, 
flies, bees, and bugs, while the larva) of most flies and bees do not 
possess mouth-parts homologous with those of the above. 



STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 



27 



Biiing Mouth-parts. — xMuutli-parts typical of those of biting 
insects are easily seen 
in the grasshopper 
(Figs. 17 and 18). In 
brief, they consist of an 
upper and a lower lip, 
between which are two 
pairs of jaws which 
work transversely. The 
upper pair of jaws, or 
Diandiblcs {nid.), are 
stout, short, and horny, 
usually sharpened at 
the tip, slightly serrated 

at the nuirgnis, •'^'^^^^ FiGAl.—Yroni-ViGyNi-Meol grA^A^ii\^^iiY{Schlzto- 
fiattened at the base. cerca americana): ant., antenna; oc, ocellus; 

The lowei- pair of jaws, J.^"' "^^^ ^^•' ^^^f""^' f '■' ^f^"'"' 7. ."PP^' 
' "' ' up; w.f./)., maxillary palpus; if/b./*., labial pal- 

or muxilla' (mx.), are pus; </o/., galea, lobe of maxilla; /«6., labium, or 

longer, not so strong, "'"li^r ''P- 

and to each of them is attached an accessory lobe, and a jointed 

B 






Fig. 18. — .1, mouth-parts 
of grasshopper sep- 
arated to show posi- 
tion and relation; B, 
mouth-parts dissect- 
ed; Ibr., labrum; mc?., 
mandible; hyp., hypopharynx or tongue; mx.p., ma.xillary palpus; 
lb. p., labial palpus; Inb., labium; ma.r., maxilhie. 



28 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




.ro&. 




style called a palpus or feeler. At each side of the lower lip is 

anotiier palpus, these palpi being 
sensory organs. 

Sucking Mouth-ptirts. — In the 
sucking insects these mouth-parts 
are prolonged into a tube through 
which the juices of the food plant 
— or animal — are sucked. In the 
plant-lice and other bugs the lower 
lip is elongated so that it forms a 
tul)(', and the maxilla; and man- 
dibles consist of long hair-like 
bristles, or sette, enclosed within 
this tube (Fig. 20). The tip of this 
beak is rested upon the surface of a 
leaf into which the seta? are thrust, 
lacerating the tissue, and by a 
pumping process of the mouth the 
juices are sucked up through the 
beak. The structure of the mouth- 
parts of the various orders of suck- 
ing insects varies considerably, but 
all agree in that they suck up the 
food in a liquid state. Any appli- 
cation of a poisonous spray to the 

surface of foliage will be of no avail 
Fig. 19.— Cicada, showing mouth- . , ^, , , , i i.u + 

parts of a bug, a sucking insect- agamst them, though sure death to 
a, seen from below, beak or ^lost biting insects which chew the 
re™7oX- .', hSrlvedl 1-ves. Sucking inject. mu.,t there- 
e, eye; Ibr., labrum; md., man- fore be killed by other means, 
dible-setse; mx., maxillary setae; 
lab., labium. 

How Insects Breathe 

Along the side of a caterpillar or larva, on one thoracic seg- 
ment and on each alxlominal segment except the last, is a small 
oval spot, in the centre of which is a slit closed by two mem- 



\ lab. 



STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 



20 





Fig. 20. — Mouth-parts of a plant- 
louse: a, the jointed beak; b, the 
lancets, much enlarged ; c, antenna ; 
d, foot. (After J. B. Smith.) 



Fig. 21. — Diagram of tracheal 
or breathing system of an 
insect: sp., spiracles; tr., 
trachea. (After Kolbe.) 




Fig. 22. — Ideal section through an insect: a, alimentary canal; /(, heart; 
n, nerve cord; s, spiracle; t, tracheal tubes; I, legs; w, wings. (From 
Riverside Natural History.) 



30 



INSECT PESTS OF 1 ARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



l)ranous lips. These apertures are called spiracles or stigmata 
(Fig. 21 sp.), and are the openings of the respiratory system. 
Similar openings are to be found in all insects, though not so 
easily seen in the adults. Connecting these spiracles is a pair of 
tubes on each side of the body, throughout its length, from which 
branch off smaller tubes to all of its organs and tissues. Fresh 



S( 


.tr ,;£.K ^ ^ 


.tK 


^5^*" " 


iiMHIIHH||Sli|UH 




wEOHB^^i*!^^^*^^^'^^^-'''^-^ -'^^s^ 


^ 








>.oe5. ycr. ^^^•^' 


s 


t. M- 


^gjBHHBHHi^S 


^^^^^^^^^ 


" pro. 


ph.; > 


^ ,tr.t. 1 , _ 'J^J- 


r^ 


'5;d. *n. 5yD. ^sp. ri.^^^-*Jsp. 


"-on.. 



Fig. 2'S. — Internal anatomy of silk-worm, from photo of Azoux Model: 
A , upper or dorsal l)odywall seen from within ; B, tlie back of the silk- 
worm removed, showing alimentary canal; (\ alimentary canal removed, 
showing nervous system and tracheal tnuiks; tr., trachea; d.v., dorsal 
vessel or heart; ph., pharynx or mouth; .sh., supra-oesophageal ganglion; 
ftp.sp., spiracles or breathing pores; n., nerve cord; tr.t., tracheal 
trimk; ora., oesophagus or throat; n\, crop; .s-.f/., silk gland; pro., 
provenlriculus; .s7., stomach; /(./'.. hind intestine. 

air is thus inhaled to all parts of the body through these tubes 
(Fig. 21,/r). 

The blood of insects does not circulate thi-ough any system of 
tubes as it does in the higher animals. Along the middle of the 
))ack, above the alimentary canal, is a long tube popularly called 
the heart (Fig. 23, dv). This heart is composed of a number of 
chambers, each of which is fuinishetl with side valves for 
admitting ])lood fiom the l)ody-cavity. The blood coming 
into the heart from the body-cavity is propelk'd forwai'd toward 



STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 31 

the head, where it again flows into the body-cavity. Thus various 
currents of blood are maintained throughout the body, but other 
than the heart there is no system of blood-vessels, the blood merely 
filling the Ijody-cavit}' around and through the various organs and 
tissues. Constantly flowing around the respiratory tubes or 
tracheae, the blood is quickl\- and thoroughly purified, though the 
exact manner in which this is done is not definitely known. The 
respiratory system has aljsolutely no connection with the mouth 
or pharynx (Fig. 23, ph), as have the lungs of the higher animals, 
and if an insect is to be suffocated, it nuist be done l)y closing the 
spiracles. It is in this Avay that tobacco-dust, lime, p}-rethrum, 
and similar insecticides kill sucking insects, by penetrating the 
spiracles and choking the tracheal system. Whale-oil soap, 
kerosene emulsion, and the other " contact " insecticides, or " iiri- 
tants," also stop up the spiracles and thus cause death, Ijut they 
may act as " irritants," penetrating the skin and thus killing the 
insect. >Mien insects are killed 1)}' means of a gas such as carljon 
bisulfide or hydrocyanic acid gas, they are asphyxiated I)}' a 
substitution of these gases for air, the same as are the higher 
animals. 

Though arsenical poisons are generally used as sprats for l)iting 
insects, soft-bodied caterpillars and similar larvie are often killed 
by the use of contact insecticitles, which affect them the same as 
sucking insects. 

The reader will observe that, almost without exception, the 
remedies advised for different insect pests in the following pages 
are determined by some peculiarity, either of structure or develop- 
ment, of the insect to be combated. 



CHAPTER IV 
FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 

The old adage " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of 
cure," is never more true than in the control of insect pests, for in 
almost all cases their successful control is by prevention before the 
injury has become acute, rather than by destruction after the 
injury is noticeable. Even insecticides must be applied so that 
they will kill the insect before it has done serious damage, for after 
damage is apparent it is too late to prevent the injury, so that 
the use of insecticides for the protection of crops must be of a pre- 
ventive nature. In the control of insects affecting the staple 
crops which are grown over immense areas with a small profit per 
acre, it is evidently impracticable to use insecticides and mechani- 
cal methods which are usetl in the orchard and garden. For the 
control of staple crop insects we are compelled to rely largely on 
general methods of farm management, which may be carried out 
in comiection with the farm operations at small cost, and which 
will fatally interfere with the development of the insect to be con- 
trolled. To do this intelligently involves an understanding of 
the life-history of the insect, revealing the time at which it is most 
vulnerable and the reason for the method of control advised. The 
importance of such a knowledge of the life histories and habits of 
insects to be controlled by farm methods will become apparent 
in the following chapters. 

Though the insects affecting staple crops are more largely con- 
trolled by farm methods, those of the garden and orchard may be 
much reduced b}' the intelligent application of the same princi- 
ples, and he who adapts his methods so as to prevent insect attack 
will be much more successful than if he depends upon artificial 
means for their destruction. 

32 



FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 83 

Looking Ahead. — In planning the management of their land 
and crops for the coming season, few farmers consider the effect 
which any given procedure will have upon the injurious insects with 
which they may have to contend. A field which has for several 
years been in wheat, corn, or tobacco, may be sown with some 
other crop for the sake of soil improvement, but how often is it 
considered necessary to rotate crops to avoid insect pests? In 
most cases they are left out of consideration until a crop has been 
seriously injured and the necessity for a change of methods thus 
impressed on the owner. 

Particularly while crops are young they should be frequently 
inspected and examined for any evidence of the pests which com- 
monly affect them. Be prepared to attack any pests which 
may be found upon their first appearance, for many of the 
most destructive insects increase with amazing rapidity, and 
when they have become abundant it is too late to prevent the 
damage. 

Crop Rotation. — One of the most important factors in insect 
control is the rotation of crops in such a manner that the same 
crop shall not be grown continuously on the same land. In man}' 
cases a yearly rotation will be advantageous, while a fi-equent 
rotation will always be found beneficial. Many insects feed on 
only one crop. It is evident, therefore, that if the}' hil:)ernate in 
or near the field which it occupied and it is then planted to the 
same crop the next year, they will he furnished food for their 
increase, while if the field be planted in a crop not attacked by 
the insects peculiar to it, they will have to migrate from it. with 
probably a very considerable mortality as a consequence, for the}' 
will radiate in all directions and many will die l)eforc finding food, 
while many more will have been destroyed in the preparation of 
the old field for the new crop. 

The western corn root-worm may be entirely controlled by a 
rotation so that corn is never gi'own two successive years on the 
same land, for the larvae feed only on the roots of corn, and when 
it is followed I)}' a small grain, grass, or clover, they are starved 
out. Injuiy by the Hessian fly to wheat is also very materialh' 



34 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

reduced where a frequent rotation is practised, as is that of the 
chinch-bug on corn. 

Care should be exercised to arrange a rotation in which crops 
nearly rehited botanically do not follow each other, for usually 
the same insects attack them. Thus white grubs, cutworms, 
and wireworms live normally in grass land, and whei'e it has not 
been plowed for several years they often become exceedingly 
abundant. If the sod be then turned under and the land planted 
to corn these insects will attack the corn, and as there are rela- 
tively few plants to the number of insects which were feeding 
upon the grass, the injury will usually be serious. To avoid 
this, sod land should be planted in a small grain, buckwheat, 
potatoes, or some crop not affected by these pests. Similarly, 
the insects which affect cabbage usually feed on all the cole crops, 
and turnips, radishes, etc., following cal)bage will be liable to 
injury by the same pests. Clovers, cowpeas, and other leguminous 
crops become of importance in rotation in this connection, as 
they are not usually attacked by the insects affecting other crops, 
and of course are widely used in every good rotation for the pur- 
pose of storing nitrogen in the soil through their root tubercles. 

T'nne of Planting. — Planting crops so that they may avoid 
the greatest abundance of their worst insect enemies is often the 
best method for their pi'otection. Thus late-sown wheat is 
usually exempt from the attack of the Hessian fly (see page 123) 
and late-planted coin is much less affected by the stalk-borer 
(see page 172) than that plant(Hl earlier. On the other hand 
eai'ly planting of early-maturing varieties often enables the ci'op 
to mature before its pests become most abundant. Thus early 
planting and early varieties are of the greatest importance in 
preventing injury by the cotton boll weevil, the cotton boll- 
worm and corn ear-worm. Early cabliage plants seem to lie less 
injured by root-maggots, and early varieties of peas escape the 
injury of tiie pea aphis. 

Weeds. — Many insects feed upon some common weetl in one 
stage while in another stage they are injurious to a cultivated 
crop. Thus the flea-beetles feed upon the roots of solanaceous 



FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 35 

weeds during the larval stage, while the adults attack all sorts of 
garden crops. In many cases caterpillars, such as the salt marsh 
caterpillar, army worms, the white-lined sphinx moth, and 
grasshoppers multiply upon weeds growing in neglected fields 
until they overflow and destroy crops. Many insects feed on 
weeds during the earh' part of the season or after the crop which 
they injure is harvested, so that the destruction of these weeds 
may often considerably shorten their breeding season or increase 
their mortality. Thus the corn root-aphis lives on the roots 
of smartweed and other weeds and grasses until corn is available 
and cutworms feed on whatever vegetation is found before a 
crop is planted. In this connection " volunteer " plants should 
be classed as weeds, as they frequently fuinish food for insects 
in the same way. Thus the cotton boll weevil feeds on volunteer 
cotton in early spring and the Hessian fly on volunteer wheat 
in late summer and early fall. Such useless trees as wild cherrv 
and seedling apple trees might also be considered as weeds, as they 
harbor many of the insect pests of our orchards and should be 
destroyed as far as possible. 

Fertilization and Culture. — Although there is some evidence 
that under some conditions, kainit, lime and nitrate of soda may 
have some direct effect on insects, it is probable that their chief 
importance is to so stimulate the plant that it will not be subject 
to insect attack or will grow in spite of some injury. It is well 
known that plants which have been weakened from any cause 
whatsoever are much more subject to the attacks of insects and 
diseases, and it is therefore obvious that plants which have had a 
vigorous growth and which will mature rapidly will much better 
withstand insect attack. Thorough preparation of the soil 
before planting, liberal fertilization, and thorough culture are 
most important in growing a crop in spite of its insect enemies. 
In many cases liberal fertilization and culture will mature a good 
crop where under poorer care it would have succumbed to insect 
injury. In general, land covered with barnyard manure presents 
more favorable conditions for the hibernation of insects than that 
fertilized with mineral fertilizers, but unless this is very appreciablv 




I''iG. 24. — Above, a poorly kept roadside with railfence overgrown with 
braml)les, thus affording protection for large numbers of destructive 
insects during winter. Below, a well kept roadside, offering the least 
protection possil)le for destructive insects. (After Webster, U. S. 
Dept. Agr.). 36 



FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 



37 



the case, it will uaually be preferred to them as far as it is 
available. 

Clean Farming. — After a crop has been harvested there is 
usually some portion of the plant which is allowed to remain 
on the land. In this refuse the insects peculiar to the crop often 
feed and multiply until killing frost and then hibernate over 
winter, ensuring injury to similar crops on the same land the 



x\&-^^ 




Fig. 25. — A field of cal)l)age stumps in inidwmlcr, aftordinj 
tions for the hibernation of cabbage pests. 



id(^al condi- 



next year. Thus the wheat joint worm and the corn stalk-borer 
both winter in the stubble of those crops, and the chinch-bug 
commonly hibernates in the ])utts of corn stalks, all of which 
may be largely controlled by burning the stubble. Possibly 
the most important means of control of the cotton Ijo-11 weevil 
is the destruction of the stalks in the fall as soon as the cotton 
can be picked, thus preventing the weevils feeding and starving 
them out l)efor(^ they are ready to hibernate, and removing the 
shelter for hil)ernation. Thus all the remnants of a crop such as 



38 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

stubble, vines, Icuvcs, or slumps, us may be, shoukl be removed 
from tlie field as soon after it is harvested as possible. As many 
insects hil)ernat(> in such i'ul)l)ish, this faet may sometimes be 
utilized by ihoioughly cleaning a field and leaving one or two 
piles of rubl)isli in which many of the insects will assemble for 
hibernation, and which may then be burnetl or otherwise destroyed. 
Many cabbage insects hibernate under the old stumps and leaves 
and will congregate in piles of them. The premises upon which 
the fence rows are kept free from weeds and grass and the fields 
are cleaned up and plowed as soon as possible after a crop is 
removed, usually suffer much less from insect pests than those of 
more easy-going neighbors. 

Burning. — Such cleaning up of stubble and of wild vegetation 
which furnishes food and shelter for insects may often be accom- 
plished by burning. The burning over of grass land aids greatly 
in the control of army worms, chinch-bugs, grasshoppers and 
plant-lice, while the burning of the stubble will largely control 
the wheat jointworm. Strawberry beds are sometimes burned 
over in early spring to destroy the eggs of the root-louse, and 
aphides on small grains may sometimes be killed out on small 
areas by covering with straw and burning while the plants are 
small. 

Plowing. — Deep plowing and thorough harrowing are the most 
effective means of ridding the soil of many pests of staple crops. 

Late Fall Plowing. — Where the succession of crops permits, 
plowing in the late fall is most advantageous, as it destroys the 
insects while hibernating, although for some insects early fall 
plowing and thorough harrowing during the fall are preferable. 
Where plowing is not possible, thorough disking is often used 
for the sam(! pui'pose, as on alfalfa. As different insects pass the 
winter in different stages this method does not affect all alike. 
Some will be destroyed by having the cells in which they have 
gone to pass the winter broken up, and l)eing unable to construct 
new cells they will be subjected to undue freezing and thawing 
and excessive moisture, and will thus l)e killed l)y the weather. 
Cutworms and the corn stalk-l)oier pass the winter in the soil 



FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 39 

as larvjE; the cotton boll worm or corn ear- worm hibernates 
in the pupal stage; while May beetles and click beetles hibernate 
as newly transformed beetles; but all of them will be similarly 
affected by the breaking up of their winter cells, which is the 
most effective manner of combating them. 

Other insects lay their eggs in the ground in the fall which 
may be buried too deep for the young to emerge, or larva? or pupae 
which normally remain near the surface may be turned under so 
deeply as to destroy them. Thus grasshopper's eggs are laid in 
the fall just beneath the surface, and by plowing in late fall or 
early spring they may be turned under so that but few are able to 
emerge, which is the best means of combating them. The apple 
maggot hibernates in the pupal stage just beneath the surface of 
the soil, and by deep plowing in early spring the puparia may be 
buried too deeply for the flies to emerge. 

Young grasshoppers are often destroyed after they hatch by 
plowing deep furrows, starting at the outside of the field and plow- 
ing in a square, thus forcing them to the centre and catching large 
numbers of them in the furrows. 

Early plowing and thorough harrow'ing in the spring are of 
value against cutworms by keeping the ground fallow and thus 
stanang them, out before a crop is planted and the same method 
may be used against other pests with similar habits. 

Thorough cultivation in the summer has been found to be of 
value against many insects, affecting them differently according to 
their habits. Many which pupate in the soil during the summer 
are destroyed while making their pupal cells, or these cells are 
broken and they are thus subject to abnormal moisture and tem- 
perature conditions and are thus killed. This has been shown to be 
the case with the cotton bollworm or corn car-worm, and is true 
of the plum (^irculio, against which thorough cultivation has 
proved to be one of the most effective means of control in apple 
orchards. Thorough cultivation is also of importance in breaking 
up the nests of ants which care for such aphides as the corn root- 
aphis. Summer fallowing is used to starve out some pests; foi- 
example, the clover root-borer may ])e eradicated by plowing up 



40 INSECT Fl<:srs OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

infested clover iinniecliiitel}' after it is cut ami exposing the roots 
to the sun and wind, which will soon dry them out and thus destroy 
the food of the larvae, which will soon perish. 

Trap Crops. — Trap crops are those which are planted as a bait 
or lure to attract the early insects so that they may be destro}'ed 
upon them before the crop to be protected is available. Doubt- 
less the reason that trap crops are not more frequently used by the 
farmer is because their successful use requires more or less of a 
knowledge of the life history and habits of the pest to be fought. 
But that is easily acquired and will make the fight against them 
more interesting and successful. 

South of Mason and Dixon's line the harlequin cabbage- 
bug frequently becomes the most serious pest of cabbage and 
related plants. When a cabbage patch has become well infested 
it is an exceedingly difficult matter to prevent injury, for the adult 
bugs cannot be killed by insecticides which will not injure the 
plant. If, however, a crop of kale be planted the previous fall, 
the bugs which hibernate over winter will attack it in the spring, 
and may then be killed by spraying them with pure kerosene, and 
the danger to the cabbage crop be thus largely averted. 

A few rows of wheat are often planted early in the fall as a 1 raj) 
for the Hessian fly, and as soon as the eggs are deposited they are 
j)lowed under deeply and the later j)lanting thus at least partl}^ 
protected. 

One of the most successful examples of averting injury b}- a 
trap crop is the use of corn to lure the cotton boll worm and thus 
})revent its injury to cotton. Corn is the favorite food plant of 
this pest, which prefers to deposit its eggs on the silk and tassels. 
By planting a few strips of late-maturing corn through the cotton 
field, they will come into silk about the time the brood of moths 
which normally deposit their eggs on cotton are flying and the}'' 
will lay them on the corn in preference, which should then be cut 
and fed to stock. In this way by planting strips composed of sev- 
eral rows planted at successive dates, the cotton may be almost 
entirely protected. Possibly a modification of this method ma}' 
be applied for the pi-otection of tomatoes or tobacco, though these 



FARM METHODS FOR THE CONTROL OF INSECTS 41 

crops have never been thus protected from this insect to our 
knowledge. 

Radishes are sometimes used as a ti-a}) crop for the root-mag- 
gots which affect the roots of cabljages and onions. The same 
principle is sometimes used in combating forest insects by gird- 
ling a tree upon which certain kinds of forest pests will concentrate, 
and it is then cut and burned. 

These examples will suffice to show that very many of the most 
important insect pests may be largely controlled by simply adapt- 
ing the general methods of farm management so as to avoid or 
prevent injury by them. They indicate the importance of a 
knowledge of the life history of any insect which is to be combated, 
knowing which, some of the al)ove or similar methods will often 
suggest themselves as applicable. Such a control of insect life 
through the practical use of natural agencies epitomizes the scien- 
tific method in the art of agriculture; i.e., the most practical and 
effective and yet simple methods based upon exact knowledge.* 

* See F. M. Webster, Farm Practice in the Control of Field Crop Insects, 
Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 465, and Some Things that the Grower 
of Cereal and Forage Crops Should Know about Insects, Yearbook U. S. 
Dept. Agr., 1908, page 367. 



CHAPTER V 
INSECTICIDES 

Materials used for tlic destruction of insects are commonly 
called insecticides, and arc roughly divisihle into four classes: 

1. Poisons, which kill by being eaten and are usually composed 
of various forms of arsenic and are therefore often called arseni- 
cals. 

2. Contact insecticides, which kill by either clogging up the 
spiracles, the ojxuiings of the respiratory system, or by entering 
the trach(>a, and thus causing suffocation, or by their corrosive 
action on the skin. 

3. Repellants, which deter the insect from attacking the plant 
or animal to which they are applied. 

4. Gases, which are used for fumigating buildings, stored prod- 
ucts and greenhouses where other means are not practicable. 

1. Poisons 

Poisons are applied to the food of the insect and must be eaten 
by it to be effective. It is evident, therefore, that they are only 
effective against biting (mandibulate) insects, or for those which 
lap up their food from the surface, and that they are of no avail 
against the true sucking insects, such as the true bugs which suck 
the juices from beneath the surface of the plant. Poisons are not 
always, however, the most effective means of combating biting 
insects, which are sometimes more effectively controlled by con- 
tact insecticides or other means. 

Nearly all of the stomach poisons arc derivatives of arsenic 

and are therefore termed arsenicals. As they are dangerous to 

human life they should be kept well labeled, locked up when not 

in us(>, and vessels in which they have been used should be care- 

fullv cleaned. 

42 



INSECTICIDES 43 

1. Paris green is a green crystalline powder composed of the 
aceto-arsenite of copper. When properly made it should contain 
at least 50 per cent arsenic oxid (AsjOs), and there should be as 
little water-soluble arsenic as possible, for the water-soluble arsenic 
is the cause of the burning of foliage which often results from the 
use of Paris green. Various State laws require that there be not 
over 3^ per cent soluble arsenic, but even this amount is often 
injurious to tender foliage. Paris green is rather a coarse powtler 
and settles readily in water, and is readily washed off by drenching 
rains. It costs from 2.5 to 35 cents per pound. It is usually used 
at a rate of from 3 to 8 ounces to a 50-gallon barrel of water; 5 
ounces per barrel is satisfactory for most purposes. In mixing, 
first stir up in a small vessel with a little water into a paste, which 
will mix more readily. Add an equal weight of quicklime, or 
slightly more will do no harm, which will take up any soluble 
arsenic. 

2. London purple is a waste product in the manufacture of 
aniline dyes, and is principally arsenic and lime. It is quite 
variable in composition and usually contains a much higher, 
and quite variable, amount of solul)le arsenic, so that it is apt to 
scald the foliage unless thoroughly mixed with fresh stone lime. 
For this reason it is now used only for rough work, such as poison- 
ing grasshoppers, making poisoned bran mash, etc., and is not 
to be recommended for general use on fruit trees and garden 
crops. It usually costs 10 or 12 cents a pound, and is used in 
the same proportions and in the same way as Paris green. 

3. Arsenate of lead is usually sold in the form of a white paste, 
composed of arsenic and lead, the exact chemical composition 
varying with the process of manufacture. To be of standard 
grade it should contain at least \2\ per cent of arsenic oxid 
and not over f per cent water-soluble arsenic oxid (AS2O5), 
and not over 50 per cent water. Owing to the small amount 
of soluble arsenic it may be used in much larger quantities than 
other arsenicals and on tender foliage which others will injure. 
From 2 to 8 pounds per 50-gallon barrel of water are used, 2 
or 3 pounds per barrel being commonly used for most of the 



44 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

pests of the orchard and garden. Arsenate of lead remains in 
suspension rather better than Paris green and is exceedingly 
adhesive, i-emaining on the foliage for two or three months. 
Arsenate of lead is made from arsenate of soda and acetate of 
lead or nitrate of lead, and may l)e made by the user if desired, 
but owing to the varying composition of these chemicals when 
purchased on the open market and the fact that the niaimfactured 
article can now be purchased in quantity practically as cheap as 
it can be made, its home manufacture is not recommended, and 
is now but rarely practiced. The market price of arsenate of 
lead has varied widely, owing to strong competition, but usually 
sells at from 8 to 10 cents per pound in 100-pound kegs, and at 
20 cents for single-pound packages. 

Arsenate of lead is now made in a powdered form for dusting 
on crops where spraying is impracticable or unsatisfactory. Most 
of that manufactured in powdered form is crystalline and will 
not mix as readily with water as the paste, and is therefore not 
recommended for use with water. One manufacturer, however, 
is producing an amorphous powder, which is bolted like flour, and 
which mixes readily with water, and may be used exactly the 
same as the paste, of course using approximately only half as much 
weight for the same effectiveness, as half of the paste is water. 

4. Arsenite of lead is a compound very similar to the arsenate, 
which is made from sodium arsenite, but it contains less arsenic 
and usually much more soluble arsenic, for which reason its use 
has not proven satisfactory, and is rarely sold by reliable dealers. 

Used in Water. — The above arsenicals are generally diluted 
with water and applied as a spray, which is usually much the 
most efficient method. Where Bordeaux mixture or lime- 
sulfur is to be sprayed on fruit trees or garden crops for the 
control of fungous diseases, the arsenical may be added to them 
at the same rate as to water. The combination of arsenicals 
with other common fungicides is not usually possible without 
danger of serious injury to the foliage. 

Used as Dust. — Under some circumstances the arsenicals are 
more readily applied in the dust form. Dusting may l)e done 



INSECTICIDES 45 

most effectivel}' l)y the use of a powder-gun, which consists 
of a rotating fan which drives the poison from a reservoir through 
a tube by which it may be directed to the desired point. The 
powder-guns most commonly used are carried by a man, though 
larger machines carried on a wagon are in use for orchard work. 
Paris green is usually diluted with 10 to 20 parts of flour, ground 
gypsum, or preferabh- air-slaked lime, though some prefer to 
use it undiluted when machines are used which control the amount 
of the application. Dusting should be done while the dew is 
on the foliage in early morning, except on such plants as have a 
rough or adhesive foliage. Paris green is frequently used as a 
dust upon potatoes, cabbage and other garden crops, as well as 
for dusting weeds and grass for grasshoppers, army worms, etc. 
Powdered arsenate of lead has recently been shown to be an 
effective remedy for the cotton boll weevil (see page 272), and 
is used pure. Its use in dr}' foi-m will doubtless be found more 
practicable on other crops than has that of Paris green. 

5. Arserute of lime is a home-made arsenical, very much cheaper 
than those previously mentioned, and giving very satisfactory 
results for certain purposes. It is not as adhesive as arsenate 
of lead, and as it sometimes burns foliage has been largely dis- 
carded for orchard spraying. It is, however, very satisfactory 
for potatoes and other low-growing crops, especially when added 
to Bordeaux mixture, which sticks it to the foliage, and it may be 
used to good advantage for fighting grasshoppers and leaf-eating 
caterpillars when it is desired to poison considerable areas of 
weeds or waste grass. The so-called Kedzie formula is the most 
satisfactory, as the soda hastens the complete combination of 
the arsenic, and the resulting solution is in a clear liquid foi-m 
which can be readily measured.* Take 1 pound of white arsenic 

* Arsenite of lime is often made by boiling 1 pound of lime with 2 pounds 
of white arsenic in 1 gallon of water for thirty to forty-five minutes. This 
results in a paste of arsenite of lime, which settles in the solution. One quart 
of this mixture is used per barrel of water or Bordeaux mixture, but unless 
the stock solution is always stirred equally well, the amount of poison in a 
quart will be quite variable, with varying effectiveness; hence the clear 
solution of arsenite of soda as in the above formula is preferable. 



46 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

and 4 pounds of crystal salsoda (2 pounds only of (inhydrous sal- 
soda are necessary), and l)oil together in 1 gallon of water for 
twenty minutes. This forms a stock solution of arsenite of soda, 
whichmaybc kept until needed. Put it in a jug and label " Poison." 
When ready to spray add a quart of this solution and 3 or 4 pounds 
of freshly slaked lime to each barrel of water (50 gallons) . When 
used at this rate the arsenite of lime will cost about 7 cents for a 
barrel, exclusive of lalwr in its preparation, as compared with 10 
cents for an equal amount of Paris green (J lb.), or 20 cents for 
arsenite of lead (2 lbs.). Unless large quantities are to be used 
for the purposes indicated, it will hardly pay the small user to 
bother with its manufacture, and the danger of poisoning in the 
mixing or in the careless disposal of waste or uncleaned utensils 
must also be considered, though it may sometimes be useful in an 
emergency when manufactured arsenicals are not availalile. 

6. Resin-soap Sticker. — Upon the smooth foliage of such plants 
as cabbage and asparagus it is exceedingly difficult to stick 
Paris green or even arsenate of lead when used as a spray. To 
obviate this the addition of resin-soap acts as a sticker. Place 
5 pounds of pulverized resin and 1 pint of fish-oil or any cheap 
animal oil, except tallow, in an iron kettle with 1 gallon of watei-, 
and heat until the resin is softened; add the lye solution as made 
for hard .soap; stir thoroughly; add enough water to make 5 
gallons and boil about two hours, or until the mixture will unite 
with cold water, making a clear, amber-colored liquid. If the 
mixture has boiled away too much, add sufficient water to make 
5 gallons. This makes a stock solution of licniid resin soap. 
For use add three gallons to 50 gallons of water, and add 3 gal- 
lons of milk-of-lime or whitewash (3 lbs. stone lime in 3 gallons), 
and \ pound of Paris green. Th(> addition of lime turns the 
small soap jjarticles into hard soap to which \hv Paris green 
adheres and is thus distriliuted throughout the mixture in 
uniform quantity and nnidered exceedingly adhesive. The 
stock solution may be added diicctly to Bordeaux mixture with- 
out the addition of extia lime, to which Paris green or arsenate 
of lead may be added in the usual quantity. Similar resin soap. 



INSECTICIDES 47 

called sticker, is sold by James (iood of Philadelphia, Pa., antl inay 
be used in the same wa}' at the rate of 3 pounds to oO gallons. 

7. Poisoned lironMash. — For coniliating grasshojjpers and cut- 
worms arsenic is often applied in the form of a i)ran mash. Mix 
1 pound of Paris green or London purple (or wliite arsenic col- 
ored with a dye) 'svith 25 pounds of bran or middlings. Stir a 
quart or two of cheap molasses into a gallon of water and moisten 
the bran, stirring thoroughly, until it nudves a stiff masli. Do 
not add so nuich walei- that the mash will be thin and will cake 
when exposed. Apply ii heaping tablespoonful near each plant 
or every 2 or 3 feet in the row. Keep poultr}- out of fields 
thus treated. For cutworms appl}- a day or two before setting 
plants and as near evening as possible. 

S. Hellebore. — The powtlered roots of the white hellebore are 
often used as an insecticide in place of arsenicals, especially for 
currant worms, rose slugs, and similar saw-fly larvte and for insects 
afTecting crops soon to l)e eaten, as the hellebore is much less 
poison to man and animals than arsenicals. It may be applied 
dry, diluted with from 5 to 10 parts of flour, or as a spray, 1 ounce 
to a gallon of water. It is too expensive to use except for a few 
plants in the yard or garden, and like pyrethrum. deteriorates 
with age and if exposed to the air. 

Harmlessness of Arsenicals when Properly Applied. — The cjues- 
tion is frequently asked whether it is safe to apply arsenicals to 
vegetables and fruits to be used as food. Where sprayed or dusted 
as directed the amount of arsenic which would be deposited on 
the plant would not be sufficient to cause any injury, and Professor 
C. P. Gillette has shown that twenty-eight cabbages dusted in the 
ordinary way would have to be eaten at one meal in order to pro- 
duce poisonous effects. Occasionally growers dust cabbage with an 
unreasonable amount of poison, and very rarely instances of poison- 
ing are recorded, but there is no value in applying any more poison 
than is necessary to make a thin film over the surface, and more 
than that is wasted. Because a certain amount of poi.son will kill 
an insect does not indicate that a larger amount can kill it any 
"deader." Experiments have also shown that tobacco sprayed as 



48 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

recommended cannot possibly bear enough arsenic to be injurious, 
and that cattle or horses may be pastured under trees sprayed 
with arsenicals with impunity.* 

2. Contact Insecticides 

Contact insecticides are used against insects with sucking 
mouth-parts and soft-bodied biting insects, which may be more 
readily destroyed by this means than by arsenicals. These sub- 
stances are fatal to the insect either by clogging the spiracles 
or trachea, and thus causing suffocation, or In' corroding the 
skin. It should be remembered that the chitinous skin of most 
insects is not easily corroded, and that in most cases a material 
sti'ong enough to penetrate the skin will also injure foliage, so that 
only soft-bodied insects can be combated with corrosive sub- 
stances upon foliage. 

In the application of contact insecticides it is absolutely essen- 
tial that the sprat/ come into contact with the insect, as a mere spray- 
ing of the foliage is of no value whatever. 

1. Kerosene onidsion is one of the oldest remedies for plant- 
lice, and other sucking and soft-bodied insects, and is often 
resorted to because it is readily made and the materials are 
always at hand. 

Dissolve \ pound of iiai-d or whale-oil soap (or 1 quart soft 
soap) in 1 gallon of boiling water. Add 2 gallons of kerosene and 
churn with a force pump l)y pumping l)ack and forth for five to 
ten minutes until the oil is thoroughly emulsified, forming a 
creamy mass with no drops of free oil visible. This stock solution 
is now diluted so that the resulting mixture will contain the de- 
sii'ed per cent of kerosene. Thus for aphides one part of the stock 
solution should be diluted with from 10 to lo parts of water, giving 
from 4 to () per cent of kerosene in the spray, while for a winter 
wash for San Jose scale, it should be diluted only three or four 

* This is not true of gras.s beneath trees which have been sprayed with 
a straight-jet fire-hose, as is commonly done in Massachusetts in the extensive 
operations against the gypsy moth, but refers to spraying which has been 
done with an ordinary spray nozzle, which applies the material as a fine spray. 



INSECTICIDES 49 

times, giving from 16 to 22 per cent kerosene. The emulsion must 
be thoroughly churned and should be applied with a nozzle throw- 
ing a fine spray. Apply only enough to wet the insects. Equally 
effective emulsions may be made from crude petroleum, the pro- 
portion of the soap and crude oil in the stock emulsion varying 
with the quality of the oil. Emulsions made with some of the 
crude oils seem to be much less injurious to foliage of some plants 
than when made with kerosene. Such an emulsion is made in 
California from distillate oils and is known as distillate emulsion. 
We have used crude Texas oils with equal success. 

2. Kerosene. — Pure kerosene should never be used on foliage, for 
though occasionally someone will report using it successfully 
without injury, in practically all cases serious burning of the foliagie 
results. It was formerly recommended against the San Jose 
scale on fruit trees, but such serious injury resulted that it has been 
almost entirely discarded, though it may be used on apple and pear 
trees if applied with a nozzle which throws a fine spray, on a bright 
sunny day, and only a very thin film applied to the tree while it is 
dormant, but even these trees are often injured if the application 
is not made with the greatest care. 

3. Crude Petroleum. — Ci'ude petroleum is used in the same man- 
ner as kerosene against scale insects, but seems to be less injurious 
to the tree, and has been extensively used in New Jersey against 
the scale on peaches, where but little injury has resulted where it 
has been carefully applied. It contains more heavy oils and con- 
sequently does not penetrate the bark so readily, and the light oils 
evaporating leave the heavy oils on the bark for some months, 
which aid in preventing young scales from getting a foothold. 
Crude oil for use as an insecticide should have a specific gravity of 
from 43° to 4o° Beaume scale, and is sold by certain Eastern com- 
panies as " insecticide oil." 

4. Oil and Water Treatment. — Spray pumps have been sold for 
several years which make a mechanical mixture of oil and water 
in desired proportions. These have been thoroughly tested both 
by entomologists and by extensive use by practical fruit-growers 
and the general verdict is that thev are unreliable and unsatisfac- 



50 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

tory. None of them now on the market give a uniform percentage 
of oil, and injury to foliage is therefore liable to result. With ;he 
advent of miscible oils the oil-and- water pump is not to be recom- 
mended. 

5. Miscible Oils. During the last few years several manufac- 
turers have placed on the market under various trade names what 
are now called miscible oils. These are petroleum rendered solu- 
ble by the addition of vegetable oils, cut or saponified with an 
alkali, and are really a sort of liquid petroleum soap which will 
combine readily with water. They have been used principally 
as winter washes against the San Jose scale, for which they are 
most effective when diluted 10 or 12 times. For a summer wash 
they have been used effectively against plant-lice and other insects 
for which kerosene emulsion would be used, diluted 25 to 30 times. 
In barrel lots the miscible oils sell at 40 to 50 cents pei- gallon, thus 
making the cost of a gallon of mixture for a winter application at 
10 per cent, 4 or 5 cents per gallon. 

6. Whale-oil and Other Soaps. — Any good soap is an effective 
insecticide for destroying aphides and young or soft-bodied larvae 
Any good laundry soap made into a thick solution one-half pound 
per gallon is an excellent remedy for such insects on house- 
plants. Whale-oil or fish-oil soap has l)een extensively used 
against scale insects and plant-lice. The best bi-ands are made 
from caustic potash rather than caustic soda, and should contain 
not over 30 per cent of water, there being wide variation in the 
water content. For the pea aphis and other aphides 1 pound 
to 6 gallons of water has been found very effective. For a win- 
ter wash for the San Jose scale 2 pounds per gallon of water are 
applied while hot, the soap being dissolved in hot water. The 
soap can be bought for 3i to 4 cents a pound in lai'ge quantities, 
thus making the treatment for scale cost fi'om 7 to S cents a 
gallon. 

7. Lime-sulfur Wash. — The lime-sulfur wash has always been 
the standard remedy for the San Jose scale on the Pacific Coast, 
and during the last few years has come into wid(> use in the East 
for the same pest. It has also been found to be an efficient 



INSECTICIDES 51 

remedy for the pear leaf blister-mite, and the oyster-shell 
bark-louse. In addition to its insecticidal properties it is an 
excellent fungicide, and the spring applications just before the 
buds start are very effective in killing out the wintering spores 
of various fungous diseases, while the diluted wash is being used as 
a summer spray for fungous diseases in place of Bordeaux mixture. 

The usual formula is, unslaked stone lime, 20 pounds; flowers 
(or flour) of sulfur, 15 pounds, water to make 50 gallons. Stir 
up enough water with the sulfur to make a thick paste. Slake 
the lime in the vessel in which it is to ])e cooked with a small 
quantity of hot water. Then add the sulfur paste to the slaking 
lime. Add 10 or 15 gallons of water and boil for forty-five min- 
utes. The mixture may then be diluted to make a barrel of 45 or 
50 gallons, straining it carefully into the spray barrel or tank. A 
large iron kettle or hog-scalder may be used for boiling the wash, 
or where steam can be made available a steam pipe may be 
run into several barrels and the wash boiled in them. Such 
barrels may well be placed upon a platform so that the wash 
may be drawn from them directly into the spray-tank. The 
materials for making the wash will cost IJ to 1^ cents per gallon 
and the labor practically as much more. The leading manufac- 
turers and dealers in insecticides are now selling concentrated 
lime-sulfur solution which is all ready for use by merely diluting 
to the desired strength, at a rate which will make the solution 
to be used cost from 2h to 3 cents per gallon, nearly as cheap 
as it can be made at home and with the saving of time and a dis- 
agreeable job. In many communities a central plant makes the 
wash and can sell it with a fair profit at a low rate. 

8. Home-made Concentrated Lime-sulfur. — During the last few 
seasons many large growers have been making their own con- 
centrated lime-sulfur solution, and where the quantity to be 
used warrants, a considerable saving may be effected. The New 
York Agricultural Experiment Station has made very careful 
studies* of the be.st methods of making and diluting the mixture 
from which the following is quoted: 

*Bulletins :i29 and 330, N. Y. (Geneva) .\gricultural Experiment Station. 



52 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



Geneva Station Formula for Concentrated Lime-sulfur Solution. 

f Pure CaO 36 lbs. 

Lime ] If 95 per cent pure 38 lbs. 

I If 90 per cent pure 40 lbs. 

Sulfur, high grade, finely divided 80 lbs. 

Water 50 gals. 



Dilutions for Dormant and Summer Spraying with Lime-sulfur 

Mixtures 





.\mount of Dilution. Number of Gallons of Water to One 
Gallon of Lime-sulfur Solution. 


hydrometer. 


For San Jos^ Scale. 


For Blister -mite. 


For Summer Spray- 
ing of Apples. 


Degrees Beaum^. 

36 


9 

8-1 

8i 

8 

IK 

71- 

6J 

liV 

6 

r3 
•J 4 

-54 
5 

4* 

4i 

3| 

U 

31 

3 

oa 

-4 

2h 
2i 
2 


12^ 
12 
lU 
11 

lOi 
10 

9^ 
9 

8* 
8 

7 

6i 

6 

5.^ 

5 

41 

4i 

4 

^ 

3 


45 


35 


43i 


34 


4U 


33 


40 


32 


37^ 


31 


36i 


30 


341 


29 


32 1 


28 .' 


31 


27 


29^ 


26 


27 a 


25 


26 


24 


241 


23 


22 a 


22 


2U 


21 


19J 


20 


m 


19 


17 


18 


16 


17 


15 


16 


14 


15 


12| 







" In making, slako the limo in about 10 gallons of hot water, 
adding the luin])s of lime gradually to avoid too violent boiling and 
spilling over. . . . The sulfur must be thoroughly moistened and 
made into an even, fluid paste without lumps (before adding to 
the lime). . . . Pour in the sulfur paste gradually during the 
slaking, stirring constantly to prevent the formation of lumps, 
and when the shiking has finished add the full amount of water 



INSECTICIDES 53 

and boil gently lor one hour. If kettles and fire are used, more 
than the required amount of water may be used at first, to com- 
pensate for evaporation, or the volume may be kept constant by 
adding successive small quantities to hold the mixture at the 
original level, as shown by a notch on a stick resting on the bot- 
tom of the kettle, and marked when the mixture first begins to 
boil. When boiling with live steam the mixture will be more 
likely to increase in volume than to decrease, so that no water 
need be added. 

" This concentrate will keep with little change, unless the 
weather is below o° ¥., if stored in filled, stoppered barrels. 
Even in open receptacles there will be no loss if the surface be 
covered by a layer of oil to prevent access of air. Each boiling 
should be tested with a Beaume hydrometer * and its density 
marked on the barrels or other containers." 

The dilution is based upon the specific gravity as shown by 
the hydrometer and may be safely made according to the out- 
line in the above table. 

In making this mixture it is important that only high-grade, 
pure lime should be used, and lime with less than 90 per cent 
calcium oxid (CaO) should be discarded. 

9. Self-boiled Lime-sulfur. — Self-boiled lime-sulfur has proven 
to be the only safe fungicide for the foliage diseases of the 
peach and stone fruits, and is used extensively as a summer spray 
on pome fruits. As a winter wash for San Jose scale it has not 
proven as effective as the boiled mixture, but when used as a 
summer spray for fungous diseases it also has considerable 
insecticidal value. Its general usefulness as a summer insecticide 
is in the process of experimental determination, but sufficient 
results have already been secured to warrant the statement 
that it will prove of considerable value as a summer insecticide 
for certain pests, where it is to be used for the fungous diseases 
of the host plant at the same time. This mixture has been developed 

* These hydrometers, made specially for testing lime-sul"fur mixture, may 
be obtained from the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y., and 
other dealers in laboratory glassware. 



54 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

chiefly by the work of Mr. W. M. Scott of the United States 
Department of Agriculture, from whose latest bulletin * the 
following is quoted : 

" In order to secure the best action from the lime, the mix- 
ture should be prepared in rather large quantities, at least enough 
for 200 gallons of spray, using 32 pounds of lime and 32 pounds 
of sulfur. The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water 
(about 6 gallons) poured on to almost cover it. As soon as the 
lime begins to slake the sulfur should be added, after first running 
it through a sieve to break up the lumps, if any are present. 
The mixture should be constantly stirred and more water (3 or 
4 gallons) added as needed to form at first a tiiick paste and then 
gradually a thin paste. The lime will supply enough heat to 
boil the mixture several minutes. As soon as it is well slaked 
water should be added to cool the mixture and prevent further 
cooking. It is then ready to be strained into the spi-ay tank, 
diluted, and applied. 

"' The stage at which cold water should be poured on to stop 
the cooking varies with different limes. Some limes are so sluggish 
in slaking that it is difficult to obtain enough heat from them to 
cook the mixture at all, while other limes become intensely hot 
on slaking, and care must be taken not to allow the boiling to 
proceed too far. If the mixture is allowed to rc^main hot for 
fifteen or twenty minutes after the slaking is completed, the sulfur 
gradually goes into solution, combining with the lime to form 
sulfids, which are injurious to peach foliage. It is therefore 
very important, especially with hot lime, to cool the mixture 
quickly by adding a few Ijuckets of water as soon as the lumps 
of lime have slaked down. The intense heat, violent boiling, 
and constant stirring result in a uniform mixture of finely divided 
sulfur and lime, with only a very small percentage of the sulfur 
in solution. It should be strained to take out the coarse particles 
of lime, but the sulfur should l)e carefully worked through the 
strainer." 

10. Sulfur. — Pui-e sulfur is one of the best remeilies for red 
* Farmers' Bulletin, 440, U. S. Dept. of Agr., p. 34. 



INSECTICIDES 55 

spider, on whatever plants it may occur, and for other mites which 
infest citrus fruits. It may be dusted on the infested plants or trees 
or applied with any other insecticide, using 1 or 2 pounds to 50 
gallons. For citrus-mites the lye-sulfur wash and sulfide of lime 
are extensively used. Sulfur is frequently dusted in poultry 
houses to rid them of lice, and may be mixed with lard and rubbed 
on the skin of domestic animals affected with lice. 

11. Pt/rethrum, buhach, or Persian insect powder, is made by 
pulverizing the petals of the pyrethrum blossom, and kills insects 
by clogging their breathing pores. It is not poisonous to man or 
domestic animals and may therefore be used where other insecti- 
cides would be objectionable. It is chiefly used for household 
pests, and in greenhouses and small gardens. It deteriorates 
rapidly witii age and should ])e kept in tight cans. An objection 
to much commonly bought is that it has been kept in stock too 
long by the retailer, thus losing its strength. Large users buy 
direct from the only American manufacturers, the Buhach Pro- 
ducing Co., Stockton, Cal. It may be used as a dry powder, 
pure or diluted with flour, or in water at the rate of 1 ounce to 2 
gallons, which should stand a day before using. For immediate 
use it should be boiled in water for five or ten minutes. It is fre- 
quently burnt in rooms to destroy mosquitoes and flies, for which 
it is effective, without leaving any odor after the room is 
aired.* 

12. Tobacco. — A tobacco decoction may be made by boiling or 
steeping tobacco leaves, stems, and refuse in water at the rate of 
1 pound to 1 or 2 gallons. This may be diluted slightly according 
to the strength of the tobacco and the insect to be combated. 
Such a decoction is an excellent remedy for dipping plants affected 
with aphides, and may be used as a spray for plant-lice and similar 
soft-bodied insects. Various extracts and solutions of tobacco are 
now sold by manufacturers which are extensively used in spraying 
against plant-lice, and which are proving more satisfactory on 
account of their uniform strength. Tobacco dust has been used 
successfully against root-infesting aphides by removing the sur- 

* See Farmers' Bulletin, 44-4, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 7. 



56 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

face soil and applying a liberal dressing of the dust and then 
covering. The rains leaching through the tobacco carry the 
tobacco water to the affected roots and destroy or repel the 
aphides. 

3. Repellants 

Repellants include any substance which may be applied to a 
plant or animal to prevent insect attack. A popular notion that 
any vile-smelling substance will repel insect attack seems to have 
very little evidence in its support. Tobacco dust, air-slaked lime, 
or even fine road dust, thoroughly covering a plant will prevent 
the attack of various flea-beetles and leaf-eating beetles, but to be 
successful the plants must be frequently dusted and kept well cov- 
ered. Bordeaux mixture, our most widely used fungicide, when 
liberally sprayed on potatoes and tomatoes, acts as a repellant to 
the little black flea-beetles which often seriously damage the 
young plants. 

The various fly-sprays which are used for spraying cattle to 
prevent the annoyance of flies act merely as repellants. 

Fruit-trees are often painted with a thick soap solution con- 
taining 1 pint of crude carbolic acid to 10 gallons as a repellant 
for the adult borers which lay their eggs on the bark. 

A substance which has come into prominence in the fight 
against the gypsy moth in New England is tree tanglefoot, a sticky 
substance the same as is used to coat fly-papers. This comes in the 
form of a very sticky paste, a band of which is placed around the 
trunk of the tree and which prevents the ascent of caterpillars, as 
it will remain sticky for some weeks. It may be used in the same 
way to prevent the wingless female canker worms and other 
wingless insects from ascending trees, or to prevent the ascent of 
caterpillars on unaffected trees. 

Various proprietary insecticides are frequently ofi"erod for sale 
with wonderful claims for their effect as repellants, but only in rare 
cases are they of any value except for use as a dust as already sug- 
gested. One of the most common fakes of this sort is that of the 
itinerant tree-doctor who offers to bore a hole in a tree and plug 
it with sulfur or other offensive compounds, which will effectively 



INSECTICIDES 57 

prevent any insect or fungous depredations. A generous price 
per tree is charged, which is the only " effect " of the treatment. 

4. Gases. 

Carbon Bisulfid (or disulfid) is extensively used against insects 
affecting stored goods and grains, and for root-feeding insects. It 
is a clear, volatile liquid giving off fumes heavier than air. It is 
sold in 25- to 100-pound cans at 10 to 12 cents per pound. It may 
be thrown directly onto grain without injury to it or placed in 
shallow dishes. For grain in store in fairly tight rooms apply 5 to 
8 pounds to ever}' 100 bushels, distributing the bisulfid over the 
surface or in pans containing not over one-half to 1 pound each. 
Make the enclosure as tight as possible; covering the grain with 
blankets or other tight cover, if necessary, and leave for twenty- 
four hours. Recent experiments have shown that the vapor is 
much less effective at low temperatures and that the dosage must 
be greatly increased at temperatures below 60° F. For fumi- 
gating buildings " there should be about 1 square foot of evap- 
orating surface to every 25 square feet of floor area, and each 
square foot of evaporating surface should receive from one-half 
to 1 pound of liquid." For fumigating clothing or household 
goods, place them in a tight trunk and place an ounce of liquid 
in a saucer just under the cover. The gas is exceedingly explosive; 
allow no fire or light of any kind around the building or enclosure 
until it has been well aired. The fumes should not be inhaled, for 
though not seriously poisonous, they have a suffocating effect and 
will soon produce dizziness and a consequent headache. The 
treatment for root-maggots and root-feed'ng aphides is discussed 
in connection with those insects (pages 355 and 496).* 

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas is extensively used for the fumigation 
of nursery trees and plants, certain greenhouse insects, pests of 
dwelling houses, storehouses, mills, etc., and in California for 
scale insects on fruit trees. It is made by combining cyanide of 

* For a complete discussion of the use of this gas, see Farmers' Bulletin, 
145, U. S. Dept. Agr., and see page 197 below. 

Carbon tetrachloride is now used for some purposes in much the same 
manner as carbon bisulphide, and is not so explosive. 



58 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

potassium, sulfuric ac"d and water. The gas is slightly lighter 
than air and is a most deadly poison. Its use is to be recom- 
mended only by thoroughly competent and careful persons who are 
fully advised as to the method of use for the particular purpose 
desired. Concerning its use advice should be sought from the State 
Agricultural Experiment Station, or from the State Entomologist, 
or from the Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture. The general methods used are fully described by the late 
Professor W. G. Johnson in his book " Fumigation Methods \ 
(Orange Judd Co.), with which should be considered the results 
of more recent experiments and experience. 

Sulfur Dioxid. — The fumes of burning sulfur, mostly sulfur 
dioxid, have long been recognized as a standard remedy for the 
fumigation of dwellings and barracks for insect pests. Successful 
fumigation for the bedbug has been reported when stick sulfur has 
been burned at the rate of 2 pounds per 1000 cubic feet of space. 
The chief objection is the strong bleaching effect of the fumes in 
presence of moisture and their destructive action on vegetation. 
Recently this gas has been extensively used under the name of 
" Clayton gas," for the fumigation of ships and ships' cargoes, par- 
ticularly grain. It is forced into the tight hold of a ship by specia'l 
apparatus and is exceedingly penetrating and effective. The 
germinating power of seeds is quickly destroyed, but they are not 
injured for food. 1 to 5 per cent of the gas, with an exposure of 
twenty-four hours, is effective for most seed and grain pests. It 
cannot be used on vegetation or for moist fruits. 

Tobacco Fumes. — Tobacco is extensively used as a fumigant 
for aphides in greenhouses and for certain plants, such as melons, 
by using it under covers. Several forms are now commonly 
used. Tobacco or nicotine extracts are sold under various trade 
names, which are volatilized by heating either with a small lamp 
or by dropping hot irons into the dishes containing the fluid. 
The same material may be purchased in the form of paper which 
has been saturated with the extract and which is burned accord- 
ing to directions, a certain amount being sufficient for so many 
cubic feet of space, which forms a more convenient method of 



INSECTICIDES 59 

application. Certain finely ground tobacco powders, called 
" fumigating-kind " tobacco powder, are used in the same way 
and are much the cheapest form of tobacco for fumigation, 
though requiring slightly more work in preparing for fumigation. 
These tobacco preparations are excellent for the fumigation of 
household plants, which may be placed in a closet and then 
fumigated according to the directions of the particular brand 
employed. Melon vines, young apple trees, bush fruits, and 
similar outdoor crops may be effectively rid of plant-lice by 
fumigating with tobacco-paper under a frame covered with 
canvas or muslin sized with glue or linseed oil. 

For further discussion of Insecticides see Funners' Bulletin 127, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER VI 
SPllAYl.NX; AND DUSTING APPARATUS 

Atomizers. — Hand atomizers of the general style shown in 
Fig. 26 may be purchased at any hardware store, and are useful 
for applying soap or oil solutions to a few house or garden plants. 
They are not adapted for more extensive use and to try to spray 
many plants, or a tree, with them, is a waste of time. 

Bucket Pumps. — The simplest type of spray pump is that 
made to use in a bucket. The better types usually cost S5 to 
$8, the cheaper styles, selling for $2 or $3, b(>ing inferior and 
unsatisfactory. 




Fig. 2(3. — An atomizer handy for spraying a few plants. 

There is as much difference in the structure of bucket pumps 
as in those of the barrel type, and many of the statements made 
below concerning the latter will apply also to bucket pumps. 
The bucket pump should have an air chamber, so that a steady 
pressure may be maintained. Some firms are making bucket 
pumps of the same gcn(n-al t}'pe of the l)arrcl }Hnnp shown in Fig. 
34, Avhich are very satisfactory in this regard. A footrest attached 
to the pump and a clamp to attach the pump to the bucket are 

useful accessories. 

60 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS 



61 



Many firms are now selling these pumps mounted in large 
galvanized-iron covered buckets, and furnished with a mechanical 
agitator. This is a desirable arrangement, for the Inickets are 
much larger than those ordi.narily used, thus saving frequent 
filling, while the cover prevents slopping, and the pump is always 
ready for use without the necessity of hunting up a bucket and 
then cleaning it, which is necessary- after using a bucket which 
is used for other purposes. 

Bucket pumps are useful for small gardens or for a few small 
trees, or bushes. 





Fig. 27. — a, a cheap type of l)ucket pump with no air-chamber, which 
will not maintain satisfactory pressure; h, a better type of bucket 
pump with small air-chamber. (C-ourt-esy Deming Co.) 

Knapsack Pumps.— The knapsack pump consists of a copper 
or galvanized-iron tank carried on the back like a knapsack, in 
which is mounted a Inickct pump with a lever handle for pumping. 
In the better makes this handle is detachable, and a plain handle 
may be attached so that the tank may be used as a simple Ixicket 
pump, for which a footrest is attached to the tank. The pump 
should have a good mechanical agitator. The copper tanks 
are preferable, for Bordeaux mixture will soon eat through gal- 
vanized iron. Knapsack pumps are useful for spraying such 



02 INSECT PI<]STS OF FARM, CJARDEN AND ORCHARD 



crops as tomatoes, melons, etc., which cover the ground, so that 

it is difficult to drive through them without injuring the vines, 

crops growing on steep hillsides, or for a small acreage of any 

garden crops, small fruits, or sinall 

tre(\s. The main objections to 

them are that they are heavy to 

cany, thus limiting their use to a 

small area; they frequently slop 

over, and wet the carrier's l)ack; 

and the i)um})s do not doveloi) 

sufficient pressure for some kinds 

of work. Consequently they ai'c 

not as much used as formei'ly, but 

are useful for the ):»urposes indi- 





FiG. 28. — Bucket pump mounted in 
bucket, and mounted in tank with 
aflitator. (Courtesy Deming C"o.) 



Fig. 29. — Bucket pump with 
large air-chamber, which will 
maintain a good pressure. 
(Courtesy F. E. Myers & Bro.) 



cated, and inasmuch as they may also be used as a simple 
Ijucket pump, they are to be preferred to them. The cost varies 
from i$8 to $12 or $15. 

Compressed-air Sprayers. — In recent years the compressed- 
air spraj^er has come into fa\'or for use in small gardens. It 
consists of a brass tank which is filled with the liquid; the air 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS 



63 




is compressed by an air-pump, and spraying continues until 
the pressure runs down, when 
a stopcock is turned and the 
pressure is again raised by pimip- 
ing. The tank holds from 
3 to 5 gallons, and is carried 
beneatli one arm, slung by a 
strap over the other shoulder. 
The chief objections to this type 
are that it is not very con- 
venient to fill, though the newer 
models are much improved, is 
not readily repaired, has no 
agitator, and requires fi'ecjuenl 
pumping. On the ollxvr hand, 
they are easih' carried, do Jiot 

leak, and leave l:)oth hands free, ^'"f' ^O.-One of the best types of 

' knapsack sprayers. JNote root- 
so that one might l)e used for rest, agitator, handle, and wide 

spraying a small tree from a step- '^'^'^'- ^^^"""^^ ^'""^ 
ladder. These compressed-air sprayers cost from $3 to $S. 

Barrel P u )np.s — 
The most serviccnible 
spray pump for the 
average farm is the 
barrel pump. With a 
good l)an'el pumj) 100 
to 150 f u 11-gr o wn 
apple trees may be 
sprayed in a day, so 
that it will l)e found 
sufficient for an oi- 
chai'd of .")()0 ti-ees or 
less. By using a row- 
spraying attachment , 




Fig. 31. — The knapsack sprayer in use. 
(Bpramotor Co.) 



a few acres of pota- 



G4 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



toes or other row crops may be sprayed with a Inu'rel pump much 
more quickly than by hand. In buying a row attachment, be sure 
that it is adjustable for rows of different widths. A good barrel 
pump costs from $15 to $2o. Most of the pumps sold -at $10 
or less are too light to do effective work or are not well constmctcd. 
Numerous pump companies advertise in the agricultural papers, 
and after considering the following points one may select a 
suitable pump from their catalogs: 





Fig. 32.-Compressed- New type of compressetl-air s])raycr with 

air sprayer with separate pump, (E. C. Brown Co.) 

section of tank 
removed to show 
air pump witliin. 

1. The pump should be guaranteed to furnish four nozzles 
at SO to 100 pounds' i)ressure with ordinary pumping. 

2. It should have a large air chamber within the barrel, and 
not ])rojecting above it. 

3. As few of the working parts of the pump as possible should 
be above the head of the barrel, as exposed parts are. easily 
broken. 

4. The cylinder, plunger, valves and woi'king parts should be of 
brass. The handles and other parts commonly made of cast iron 
are much more durable when made of malleable or galvanized iron. 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS 



(55 



5. There should be a good mechanical agitator of the paddle 
type, preferably arranged so that it can be worked with the 
pump handle without operating the pump. An agitator is 
essential to keeping the mixture in suspension. Agitators of the 
so-called " jet-type," in which a stream from the bottom of the 




Fig. 33. — An undesirable type of Fig. 34. — A desirable type of barrel 



barrel sprayer — now off the 
market; the air-chamber and 
other parts above the barrel 
render it top-heavy, and may 
be easily broken. 



pump eml)odying most of the 
features described. (Morrill & 
Morley.) 



cylinder is supposed to agitate the liquid, are unsatisfactoiy 
and allow a loss of pressure without sufficiently agitating the 
li(iuid. 

6. The pump should be so attached to the barrel that it can 
be quickly removed for repairs. Those pumps which have lugs 
for attaching the pump plate to the barrel are much better than 
those with screws. 



GG INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 





Fig. 35. — Two types of double-acting lever pumps, to L>e mounted on 
truck and connected with tank. 




Fig. 3G — Double-acting horizontal pump mounted on 250-gallon tank. 
A good type of outfit ior medium sized commercial orchards. (Va. 
Agr. Exp. Sta.) 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS 



07 



8. The valves, with their seats or cages, should be readily 
removable for cleaning, and shoukl be so constructed that they 
remain evenly ground. 

All of these points may not be embodied in any one pump, 
but most of the better pump manufacturers are embodying these 
features in their nevt-ei- models, a good example* of which is shown 
in Fig. 34. 

Barrel, knapsack, and 
bucket pumps are manufac- 
tured which have separate 
tanks for oil and water 
which are mixed in a de- 
sired proportion and sprayed 
as a mechanical mixture. 
They have been found un- 
reliable in controlling the 
amount of oil, and are not 
now in general use. 

Horizontal Pumps. — For 
larger orchards and shade 
trees, the double-acting 
horizontal pumps which are 
operated with a lever, as 
shown in Fig. 35, furnish 
more power and conse- 
quently make more rapid 
work possible. They are 
mounted on 100- or 150- 
gallon tanks and may be 




Fig. 37 .-Gasoline power sprayer, complete. 
Note wide tread steel wheels, steel tower 
on tank, and intake hose for filling tank 
where running water is not available; 3J 
h.p.',4-cycle gasoline engine, will main- 
tain 10 nozzles at 200 lbs. pressure. 



arranged for filling the tank where running water is not available. 
These pumps cost from $30 to $50 and will maintain 100 to 125 
pounds pressure ' with four to eight nozzles. They are usually 
used with two raen spraying and another driving and pumping, 
or a foui-th man pumps and changes places now and then with 
the driver, as the operation of this type is rather too heavy for 
one man constantly. 



6S INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




Fig. 38. — One of the latest three-cylinder power pumps, designed for 
spraying shade-trees and woodlands. 




Fig. 39. — Row-spraying attachment for use with barrel pump, adjustable 
for various width of rows. (Deming Co.) 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS 



69 



Power Outfits. — For orchards of much over 500 trees or for 
extensive shade-tree work a gasoline power outfit is more econom- 
ical and enables a large area to be covered more quickly, which is 
often a most important consideration. Most of the pump manu- 
facturers and many gas engine companies are selling such outfits 
mounted upon a truck, with spray tank, and tower complete for 
from $250 to $400. 

Traction iSprayers. — For a small acreage of potatoes or other 




Fig. 40. — A good type of geared sprayer for row crops. 

row crops, a barrel pump with row attachment is very satisfac- 
tory, but for any considerable acreage, a two-wheeled traction 
sprayer is much more economical of labor and time which are 
the two chief items in the cost of spraying. Such traction 
sprayers are made of widely different types, the power in all 
cases being furnished by a gear or chain which operates the pump 
from the wheels. The mechanical construction of the traction 
sprayers should be carefully studied, and if possible tested, before 



70 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



purchasing, us tlicy differ great!}' in cfficienc}'. Tlic better types 
cost from $60 to $100, and usually have attachments adapting 
them for all sorts of row crops, such as potatoes, strawberries, 
bush fruits, grapes, etc., which require different styles of piping 
to properly direct the nozzles. 

Several traction sprayers are sold for orchard work but, though 
they are fairly satisfactory for small trees, they do not develop 
enough power for spraying large trees, and have a heavy draft. 

Gas Sprayers. — A very handy and efficient spraying outfit is now 




Fig. -11. — Row sprayer applying arsenate of lead to potatoes, showing 
arrangement of nozzles to cover vines. (After Britton.) 

made which uses carbonic-acid gas as the power (Fig. 42), The 
liquid is placed in a steel-tank, to which is attached a tube of 
carbonic-acid gas, the same as is used for soda foujitains. The 
gas is admitted to the tank by a valve until the desired pres- 
sure is secured, and the gas then forces the liquid out, thus 
obviating the need of a pump. The outfit is mounted on a 
steel truck with steel tower, or may be mounted on any wagon, 
and is also mounted on two wheels with suitaole attachments 
for row spraj'ing. The cost of the gas is somewhat higher 
than gasoline or hand power, btit less labor is required 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATI^S 



71 



and constant high pressure is maintained. Unfortunately the 
gas makes a chemical combination with lime-sulfur mixture, so 
that this type of sprayer is not adapted for its use. A modifi- 
cation of the gas sprayer outfit has recently been made in wliicli 
a gasoline engine operates an air-compressor, which places an air 
pressure on the liquid in the tank in the same manner as would 
the compressed carbonic-acid gas. It is claimed that these 
outfits are superior to an ordinary gasoline engine and pump, 
in that the liquid does not pass through the pump, and that 




Fig. 42. — Carlionic-acid gas sprayer at work. 

there is therefore less wear on the pump, and that the outfit is 
lighter. 

A somewhat similar use of compressed air is being made for 
orchard sprayers by a few large fruit growers. The outfit 
consists of two steel tanks holding 50 to 100 gallons each, 
which are fitted with valves connecting them and at the outlet. 
One of these tanks is filled with liquid and in it is an agitator 
operated from the wheel. The other tank is charged with com- 
pressed air b}' an air-compressor stationed at the filling-station. 
The air-pressure secured in the air-tank is sufficient to force all 



72 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

of the liquid out of the other tank at a pressure never below 100 
pounds, and averaging 125 to 150 pounds. The advantages of 
these outfits are that they are much lighter, so that more liquid 
can be carried, and that the men on the outfit need have no 
mechanical abilit}-, as is necessary with the operation ofa gasoline 
engine pump. The trucks and tanks are much cheaper than the 
gasoline sprayers, but the cost of the engine and air-compressor 
at the charging station makes the total cost probably more. It 
is also necessary for each tank to return to the charging station, 
and it is not possible to use a supply tank, a-s is commonly done 
with gasoline sprayers. However, these outfits are in successful 
operation by some of the largest orchardists, who believe them to 




Fig. 43. — Vermorel, Ixirdeaux, and disk type of nozzles. 

be much the best type of sprayers for large operations, so that they 
merit study by those contemplating extensive spraying. 

Nozzles. — A good nozzle is as essential as a good pump for suc- 
cessful spraying. The best nozzles now in common use are of 
three types. 

The Vermorel type consists of a small chamlior into which the 
liquid is admitted at a tangent and leaves through a small hole in a 
removable cap, thus making a fine, cone-shaped spray. A small 
pin, with a spring to hold it back when not in use, serves as a dis- 
gorger to remove any sediment which may clog the outlet. This 
type of nozzle is made in many slightly different styles and often 
sold under trade names, such as the Demorel, Mistry and others. 
A slightly modified form has no spring attached to the disgorger, 
but has a loose cap which is hold away from the pin by the force of 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS 



73 



the liquid, and the outlet is disgorged by simply pressing the cap 
down on the pin. Such are the Spramotor (Spramotor Mfg. Co.) 
and Vapor-Mist Nozzles (Field Force Pump Co.) and are disgorged 
rather more easily than those with springs. The Vermorel type 
makes the finest spray of the three types of nozzles and will there- 
fore be preferred for use with oils and fungicides where a very fine 
spray is desired. The licjuid must be thoroughly strained, for they 

are easily clogged. Usually two or 
three nozzles are attached to a Y, T, or 
ring, for orchard or shade tree work. 

Disk Type. — An evolution from the 
latter type has recently been brought 
out in which the chamber has been 
made much broader and flatter, thus 
giving a very strong rotar}' motion to 





Fig. 44. — A cluster of spramotor noz- 
zles and single nozzle of the same 
tj-pe- 



Fig. 45. — Angle form of 
disk type nozzle, partic- 
ularly useful for orchard 
spraying. (Friend Mfg. 
Co.) 



the liquid and breaking it into a fine spray through a large aperture, 
so that no disgorger is required. This is known as the disk type of 
nozzle, and was originated by the Friend Mfg. Co., but is now sold 
by all the leading pump companies in various forms under different 
trade names. The nozzle is light, does not catch on twigs, and the 
large aperture pi'events clogging, even of unstrained liquid, and 
allows the passage of a large amount of liquid, one of these 
nozzles spraying as nmch as two or three Vermorels. This type 
was designed for use with power sprayers, but will give good 



74 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



results with baiTel or horizontal pumps which will maintain a 
pressure of 85 pounds or more. One of these nozzles to each line 

of hose will be sufficient with a barrel 
pump, and two to a line with power. 
The disk type is adapted to orchard 
and shade-tree work. 

The Bordeaux nozzle is of entirely 
different structure, the spray being 
formed by a straight stream hitting a 
lip which breaks it into a fan-shaped 
spray, the fineness of the spray being 
governed by the width of the aperture. 
To unclog the nozzle the core through 
which the stream emerges is reversed, 
thus giving a straight stream and clear- 
ing the nozzle immecUately. For this 
reason the Bordeaux nozzle is partic- 
ularly adapted to traction sprayers 
where several nozzles are used and it is 
necessary to unclog them quickly. It 
is usually preferred for garden and row 
crops, and some prefer it for tree work, 
though it is not as widely used for that 
purpose as the previous types. 

At the present time these three 
types of nozzles are much superior to 
all others, and the user will do well to 
stick to them and let others experiment 
with new or cheap creations until 
they have proven themselves better. 
Nozzles which merely sprinkle ormakea 
strong long stream are undesirable for 




Fig. 46. — Bamljoo extension 
rod at left, and iron rod 
with drip-guard at right. 



spraymg. 



Extension Rods.— In orchard spraying an extension rod is a 
necessity. Most pump companies sell a bamboo rod enclosing a 
light brass tube, and fitted with thread for the nozzle at the tip and 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS 




45-degree elbow 
for attaching 
nozzles to end 
of rod for 
orchard spray- 
ing. 



with a shut-off or stopcock at the lower end, so that the stream 

may be cut off when moving from tree to tree and the pressure 

maintained. These are light and easily handled, but the bamboo 

and connections frequently break, so that many 

prefer using a straight piece of three-eighths or 

one-half inch galvanized-iron pipe, threaded for 

the nozzle and stopcock. Wooden handle-grips, 

or grips made of Ijurlap, may be wired around the 

pipe, so that it will be easier to hold. Ten feet 

is a good length. 

The nozzle should be attached to the rod 
by a 45-degree connection, so that it points at 
that angle. This enables one to spray directly over the topmost 
Ijranches and imder the lower ones, making the work much easier 

and more effective than 

where the nozzle is attached 
straight. 

In spraying low-grow- 
ing crops, such as melons, 
beans, etc., upon which it 
is desiral)lc to spray the 
under surface of the foliage, 
a short pipe about 3 feet 
long is usually used, with 
the nozzle attached to it 
hy an L, so that the noz- 
zle is at right angles to 
the pipe and will sjjray the 
under surface. 

Hose. — Use the best 
four-ply one-half-inch hose 
for barrel or power sprayers and three-eighths-inch for bucket or 
knapsack sprayers. For barrel or power sprayers use couplings 
with double-length shanks which will permit the use of two clamps 
or bands on either side of the union. Wire bands for attaching 
hose to pump or nozzle are unsatisfactory and should be avoided. 




T«|Wf 



Fig. 46. — Spraying squash with underspray 
nozzle at right angle to rod. 




I'lii. 47. — The old way: attempting to spray tall apple-trees from the ground 
and making very hard work of it. 




J'lG. 48. — The modem way: spraying apple-trees from a rough tower 
bolted to a one-horse wagon. 



SPRAYING AND DUSTING APPARATUS 



77 



Strainers. — To obviate the delay caused by nozzles clogging 
with dirt and sediment, strain all mixtures through a fine copper 
strainer when filling the spray tank. Have the tank tight and 
see that it is clean before filling. 

Towers. — For orchard spraying it is essential that the operator 
be high enough to spray all parts of the tree quickly and thor- 
oughly. Most of the power outfits are built with a tower such 
as shown in Fig. 37. A very sei'vicoable tower may be erected on 
a one- or two-horse wagon, at slight expense. It is bolted to the 
body, so that it is easily removed. The floor should be as high 




Fig. 49. — .\ powtler-gun for applying insecticides in dust form. (After 

Weed.) 

as the weight of the wagon and roughness of the land will allow, 
and the railing should be about the height of the sprayer's waist. 
Dusting Apparatus. — For dusting a few plants a small powder 
bellows may be used, but where crops are to be dusted a powder 
gun will be found much more economical. One of the best 
types is shown in Fig. 49. This has tubes which will direct 
the dust onto two rows if desired and regulates the amount 
of dust used. Larger traction outfits mounted on two wheels 
are made for dusting row crops, but hand work with the smaller 
machine has usually proven more effective. Larger outfits are 
also made for carrying in a wagon for dusting orchards. These 
have been used extensively in the Ozark region, but the use of 
dust has not proven as effective for most purposes as the spray, 
though it is superior for some purposes, as for the .cotton boll 



78 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

weevil (see p. 272\ and may sometimes be used where it is dif- 
ficult to secure or haul water. 

Other mechanical devices for combating particular insects 
will be described in connection with them.* 

* For further information see " Information Concerning Spraying for 
Orchard Insects," A. L. Quaintance, Yearbook, U S. Dept. Agr., for 1908, 
p. 267. 



CHAPTER VII 

Insects Affecting Grains, Grasses, Forage and Miscellaneous 

Crops 

Several of our worst, insect posts live normally in grass land, 
but when they become numerous feed upon grains and various 
forage and garden crops, so that they are not readily classed as 
enemies of any one crop, and will th(>refore be discussed together. 

White Grubs * 

Among the most common pests of corn, strawberry beds, 
and garden crops are the large white grubs which feed upon 
the roots and often kill the plants. Their habit of lying curled 
up in a semicircle, and the large brown head, white body, and 
enlarged abdomen, at once distinguish them from other forms 
of grubs. Although they are very similar in color and form, 
there are numerous species, all of which are the young of different 
species of the large brown May-beetles or June-bugs, as they are 
commonly called, which frequently fly into lights in late spring. 

Life History. — The eggs are laid mostly in June, preferably 
in grass land, but also in corn fields and gardens. The egg is 
of a broad oval shape, pure white, about one-tenth inch long, 
and is laid in a small ball of earth a half inch in diameter, from 
1 to 5 inches below the surface. The eggs hatch in about two 
weeks, most of them hatching by the middle of Jul}'. The 
young grubs feed upon plant roots, and grow slowly, as it 
requires two years or more for them to become full-grown. 
In the fall they burrow down in the soil, gradually going deeper 

* Lachnosterna spp. Family — Scar(thceidce. See S. A. Forbes, Bulletin 
116, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 



80 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

as frost approaches until by the first freeze most of them are 
from 7 to 14 inches deep. The next year they do much more 
serious damage, and land which has been in sod and then 
planted in corn, strawberries, or other crops of which they are 
fond, is often so full of the grubs that the crops are ruined. In 
1895 an Illinois field of 250 acres which had been in grass for 
twenty years was so injured that the sod could be rolled up 
like a carpet over the entire field. It is not surprising, therefore, 
that Professor Forbes records finding as many as thirty-four grubs 
to the hill of corn in another Illinois field which had previously 
been in sod. Where sod is taken into greenhouses the grubs 




Fig. 50. — Lachno.stcrna urciuttii: a, Ijeetlc; /j, ]>upa; r. cgf;; (/, mnvly-liatched 
larva; e, mature larva; /, anal segment of same from l)elo\v. a, h, 
e, enlarged one-fourth; c, d, f, more enlarged. (After Chittenden, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

often become; serious })(\sts. When the grub is two, or possibly 
sometimes three years old, it forms a small oval cell from 3 to 
10 inches below the surface and there changes to a soft, white 
pupa, sometime in June or July. The pupal stage lasts slightly 
over three weeks, and in August or September the adult beetle 
wriggles out of the pupal skin, Ijut remains in the pupal cell 
until the following spring, when it comes forth fully hardened. 
Thus three full years are occupied by the life-cycle of each brood, 
though grubs in all stages of development may be found in the 
soil every year. 

The adult beetles feed at night upon the foliage of various 
trees. They hide in the soil during the day, migrate to the trees 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 81 

at dusk, and return to the fields just before daybreak. The 
different species have favorite food plants, but all of our common 
deciduous shade and forest trees are more or less eaten, poplar, 
willow, and maple being particularly relished. On a warm evening 
the beetles may often be heard feeding and their work may be 
identified by the ragging of the foliage, as if it had been torn. 

Control. — As allowing land to i emain in grass for several years 
is conducive to the increase of the grubs, a frequent rotation will 
prevent their multiplication, the grass being followed l^y potatoes, 
buckwheat, small grains, or some crop not seriously injured by 
them. 

As the beetles remain in the pupal cells over winter and are 
tender and not fully hardened, deep plowing and thorough hai- 
rowing in fall or early spring will kill large numbers of them 
by breaking open the cells and exposing them to the weather 
and by burying and crushing them. 

Swine will gorge themselves on grubs in badly infested land, 
and if confined so that they will thoroughly root it over, will 
very effectually rid it of them. Flocks of chickens or turkeys 
following the plow will catch a considerable number of grubs, 
as do the crows and blackbirds, which pay for the corn they eat 
by the war they wage on grubs. 

The beetles may be jarred from the trees upon which they are 
feeding in the cooler part of the night and collected, as is exten- 
sively done in Europe. Lanterns hung over pans or tubs contain- 
ing water with a surface film of kerosene placed near the trees on 
which they feed, will catch large numliers on warm nights when 
they are flying. 

Wireworms* 

Wireworms are hard, shining, slender, cylindrical, brown 
larvae about three-quarters to 1 inch long, which bore into 
the seed of corn, wheat and other grains, often necessitating 
replanting, and also feed on their roots, as well as on potatoes, 
turnips, and many garden crops. They are the young stage of 

* Family Elateridce. 



82 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




brownish beetles of the family E later idee, which from their 

habit of snapping their 
bodies up in the air 
are known as '' click 
beetles." The beetles 
are one-half to thi-ee- 
({uarters incli long, de- 
cidedly Iluttened, dark 
brown, often with 
darker markings, with 
shoi't heads, and shield- 
shaped thoraxes, as 
shown in Fig. 50. Although the 
common wireworms look much 
alike, examination usually re- 
veals that they belong to several 
species which are distinguished 
by a comparison of the caudal 
segments, as shown in Fig. 51. 

Life Hislory. — The life history 
is veiy similar to that of the 
white grubs, except that from 
three to five years are required 
for the complete life cycle. The 
eggs are deposited in old sod 
land, which is the favorite 
breeding ground. The detailed 
life histories have not been care- 
fully studied, but the second year 
after grass land has been planted 

in grain is that in which the 
Fig. 50. — .1, beetle of wheat wireworm 

(.Igr/o^e.^ mancw,s) X 4; B,£>, beetle worst mjury occurs, particu- 

(X4)and wireworm {X7) oi DraMe- larly with corn, upon which the 
rins eleaanti; C, the corn wireworm , , " i • a 4. i +i, 

/7i7/ , •;.,; ,.c\ ^Ai fxft^^ attack IS more concentrated than 
{Melanotux cribulosus) X4*. (Alter 

Forbes.) with small grains. The larviB 

become full grown in midsunnuer, form small cells in the soil 




INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 



83 



and in tliem ti-ansform to pupffi. Three or four weeks later 
the adult beetles shed the pupal skins, but few of them make 
their way to the surface during the fall, most of them remaining 
in the pupal cells until the following spring. 

Control. — As they resemble the white grubs in life-cycle, so 
the means of control are similar. By plowing in late summer 
or early fall and thoroughly harrowing for a month or so, large 
numbers of the pupa> and newly transformed beetles will be 
destroyed. When the wireworms are numerous in restricted 
areas, as they often are on spots of low moist land, they may be 
effectually trapped with but little labor by placing under boards 
bunches of clover poisoned with Paris green. A short rotation 




Fig. 51. — A, last segment of Melanotus communis, dorsal view (After 
Forbes) ; B, the wheat wireworm, Agriotes mancus — a, b, c, d, details 
of mouth-parts, enlarged: C, caudal segment of the wireworm of Draste- 
teriuti elegans; Z), caudal segment oi the wirewonn oi AsapJtes decoloratus, 
much enlarged. {A, C, D, after Forbes; B, after Slingerland.) 



of crops in which land is not allowed to remain in grass for any 
length of time will prevent their increase. Many remedies have 
been suggested for these pests, l)ut few of them have proved 
to have much merit in careful tests. Coating the seed with gas 
tar, as is done to protect it from crows, has been very widely 
practiced, and though previous experiments indicated that it could 
not be relied upon, Dr. H. T. Fernald conducted t(\sts in Massa- 
chusetts in 190S and 1909 in which seed coated with gas-tar 
and then dusted in a ])ucket of fine dust and Paris green suffi- 
cient to give the corn a greenish color, was effectiveh' protected, 
the treatment seeming to act as a repellant, and not affecting 
the germination of the seed. 



84 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Cutworms* 

Under the general term cutworms we commonly designate 
any of the larva) of several species of moths, which are more 
or less siiuihir in general appearance and habits, and which have 
the habit of feeding on low-growing vegetation, and cutting off 
the stem just at the surface of the ground. They should be 
carefully distinguished from white grubs, which are sometimes 




Fig. 52. — Earth rcmoviHl from base of seedling to show cutworm in hi(Hng — 

natural size. 

wrongly called cutworms on account of their similar hal)its. 
Some of the species attack cei'tain crops more commonly than 
others, but most of them are quite omnivorous in their feeding. 
When they become overabundant tiiey will eat anything green 
and succulent— foliage, flowers, buds, fruit, stalks, or roots, and 
sometimes migrate to other fields in armies like the army worms. 
Some species commonly climb young fruit trees which have l)een 

* N'arimj.s species ut' the family Xoctiiidie. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 85 

planted on grassy land or which ar(; allowed to grow in grass 




c^i- ^rr 



Fig. ."i8. — (Jreasy culworin (Agrotis Fig. 54. — The dark-sided cut- 

ypsilon); a, larva; fe, head of same; worm (Agrotis messond). 

c, adult -^ natural size. (After (After Riley.) 
Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 




Fig. 55. — Peridromia mmia: a, adult, b, c, cl, full-grown larva*; e, /, eggs 
all natural size except e, which is greatly enlarged. (After Howard, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

or weeds, and are known as climbing cutworms. Our common 
species are most injurious to garden crops and to corn, cotton, 



86 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



tobacco and similar crops grown in hills or rows, small grains 
and forage crops being injur(>(l but rarely. 

Though over a score of species are common, it is not practica- 
ble to distinguish them in this discussion, and though their life 
histories are somewhat different, they may be considered as a class. 

The adults are moths with dark fore wings, variously marked 
with darker or lighter spots and narrow bands as shown in 
Figs. 52-59, and with lighter hind-wings, which are folded over 
the back when at rest. Like the cutworms, they feed at night, 
sipping the nectar from flowers, and are known as owlet 
moths. The females deposit their eggs in grass land or where 
a crop has been allowed to grow up in grass and weeds in late 




Fig. 56. — The bronzed cutworm {Nephclodcs m in inns Guen.): back and side 
views of larva — enlarged, and moth — natural size. (After Forbes.) 

summer, laying them in patches on the stems or leaves of grasses 
or weeds, or on stones or twigs in such })laces. 

The little caterpillars which hatch fi-om these eggs in August 
and September feed on the roots of whatever vegetation is available 
until frost, going deeper as it approaches, and finally hollow out 
small cells, in which they curl up and hibernate^ until tiie next 
spring. The next spring they arc exceedingly hungry after their 
long fast, and attack any vegetaton at hand with surprising vorac- 
ity. If the land is in grass or weeds they have plenty of food, 
and if it is th(>n plowed and planted in some crop, it will 
certainly be injiu'cd. 

The cutworms usually become full grown during late spring 
or early summer, and are then about 1^ to 2 inches long, of 
a dull biT)wn, gray or blackish color, often tinged with green- 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 87 



i.sli, and more or less niarketl with longitudinal stripes, oblique 
dots and dashes, the markings usually being of a subdued 
tone, so that the cutworm harmonizes in color with the 
soil. They are cjdindrical, with the head and prothoracic plate 
horny and reddish brown, and bear three pairs of jointed legs 




I'lG. 57. — Cutworm moths: b, the well-marked cutworm-moth {Noctua 
dundestina Harris) ; the 'dingy cutworm {Feltia subgothica Haworth) ; 
male (w) and female (/) moths. (After Slingerland.) 

on the thorax and five pairs of prolegs on the abdomen. The 
mature caterpillars pupate in cells a few inches below the sur- 
face and in three oi' four weeks the adult moths emerge, usually 
in July and early August in the Central and Northern States 
and earlier farther south. 

Thus there is usually but one generation a year in the North 
while in the South there are commonly two generations and in 
some cases three. Though other stages than the larvae of 
various species are known to sometimes hibernate, nevertheless 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



the worst injury is usually done in the i-pring, when young plants 
have just been set or are just appearing. 

Control. — It is evident from their life history that like the 
white grubs and wireworms, cutworms may be most effectually 
combated b}- plowing in late fall and again plowing and har- 
rowing thoroughly in early spring, so as to keep the land fallow 
and thus starve them out. Land which is to be planted in 
corn or crops suliject to cutworm injury should be plowed as 
early as possible in late summer of the preceding year and kept 
fallow so that the moths will not deposit their eggs ujxjii it, 
as the}' wnll if it is left in grass or weeds. 

r 




Fig. 5S. — Moth of the glassy cut- 
worm {Hadena devaslatrix 
Brace). (After Forbes.) 



Fig. 59. — CJraniilated cut-worm (Agrotis nv- 
nexa). a, larva; /, pupa; h. adult — natural 
size. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



Poisoned bran mash (see p. 47) is probably the l)est thing 
for destroying cutworms, and if w(41 applied a few days before 
plants are set or a few days after seed is planted, will often 
protect crops on infested land. On corn land it may be applied 
with a seed drill, and in gardens an onion drill is sometimes 
used in the same way, placing the mash on the surface near 
the plants; or it may be applied by hand, placing a tablespoonful 
near each plant or every 2 or 3 feet in the row. Distribute 
the mash late in the afternoon, so that it will still be moist 
when the worms feed at dusk. Keep poultry away from fields 
so treated. Clo^Tr which has been thoi'oughly sprayed or dipped 
in water containing one-third pound Paris green per barrel may be 
used in the same way, particularly along the outside of fields to be 
protected from im^asion or along borders of fields next to grass. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 89 

Market gardeners frequentl}- protect cabbage, tomato and 
similar p-lants by knocking the bottoms out of tin cans or making 
cylinders of building paper and placing these around the stems, 
sinking them into the soil. Where cutworms assume the climbing 
habit and attack fruit trees, distribute the bran mash oj' poisoned 
clover liberally around the bases of the trees and put a band 
of tanglefoot around the trunk of each tree, which will prevent 
their ascent. Thorough cultivation of the orchard and neighbor- 
ing land will also reduce their numbers. When they assume the 
migratory habits of army worms, they may be controlled by the 
same methods as described for them. Garden plants may some- 
times be protected from cutworms, as well as flea beetles, by dip- 
ping them in arsenate of lead, 3 pountls per barrel, when planting. 

The Chinch-bug * 

The adult Chinch-bug is al)out one-fifth inch long, with a 
black body. Its white wings lie folded over each other on the 
abdomen, and are marked by a small black triangle on their 
outer margins, while the bases of the antennie and the legs are 
red. The young bugs are yellowish or bright red marked with 
brownish-black, becoming darker as they grow older. Along 
the Atlantic coast and along the southern shores of the Great 
Lakes north of a line from Pittsburg, Pa., to Toledo, Ohio, the 
majority of the adults have short wings reaching but half over the 
abdomen and are incapable of flight; but between the Alleghany 
and Rocky Mountains the long-winged form greatly predominates. 
It occurs also in restricted localities in Central America and 
along the Pacific coast. The worst injury is to small grains 
and corn in the Central and North Central States, l)ut frecjuently 
injury is done in the Eastern States, especially to timothy meadows 
which have stood for several years. Though individually insig- 
nificant, when assembled in countless myriads chinch-bugs have 
doubtless been of greater injury to the farmers of the Mississippi 
Valley than any other insect attacking grain crops, the total 
damage from 1850 to 1909 being estimated at $350,000,000.t 

* Blissus leucopterus Say. Family Lygceidoe. 

t See Circular 113, Bureau Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., F. M. Webster. 



90 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



Life History. — During the winter the bugs hibernate in clumps 
of grass, in the butts, and in old shocks of corn, or under what- 
ever rubbish is available. In early spring they assemble in 
fields of grass and small grains. Soon they pair and the females 
commence to lay their small yellowish-white eggs upon the 
roots or bases of the stalks, each laying some 150 to 200 eggs. 

The eggs are laid from the middle of April until the first of 
June, depending upon the latitude and weather, and hatch in 
two or three weeks. As the nymphs grow they often do serious 
injury to small grains and grass, upon which they become full 
grown about the time of harvest. When wheat is harvested 
they spread to oats and soon to corn, but, curiously enough, though 




Fig. ()0. — The chinch-hiij;; (Blissii.s leucoptcrus Say): adult at left; a, b, eggs 
mapnified and natural size ; r, young nymph ; e, second stage of nymph ; 
/. third stage; g, full-grown nymph or pupa; d, h, j, legs; i, beak through 
which the bug sucks its food. (After Riley.) 

the adults have wings they travel from field to field on foot, were it 
not for which fact we should be at a loss to cope with their migra- 
tion. Eggs are now laid upon the tmfolding leaves of the corn, 
from which the nymphs commence to emorg(> in about ten days. 
This second ]:)rood matures on corn in August and September and 
is the one which later hibernates over winter, though where corn 
is not available the whole season may be passed on grass. 

Control. — The burning over of grass land, and the grass along 
fences, hedges, and roads, as soon as it becomes dry enough in 
late fall and early winter, is of prime importance to destroy 
the Inigs after thev have gone into hibernation. The removal 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 91 

of all corn stalks from the fields and plowing the butts under 
deeply, or where the bugs are very abundant, raking out the 
butts and burning them, will rid the fields of the pest. 

It is practically impossible to combat the pest in the summer 




Fig. 61. — Corn-plant two feet tall infested with chinch-liugs. (After Webster, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

on grass or small grains, but its migration to corn or from field 
to field may be efi^ectually checked. In dry weather a dust 
furrow may be used as a barrier to good advantage. Just before 
harvest plow a deep furrow arounfl the field to be protected, 
or on the threatened sides, and thoroughly pulverize the soil by 
dragging a heavy log back and forth in the furrow, making 



92 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

the side next the corn as steep as possible.* In attempting 
to cHmb this barrier, the chist will slide from under the bugs 
and large numbers will accumulate in the bottom of the furrow, 
where they will be killed l^y the heat of the soil if it has a 
temperature from 110° to 120° (air temperature of over 90°). 
Keep the furrow clean by dragging a log through it now and 
then. By sinking post-holes a foot deep every few feet in the 
bottom of the furrow the bugs will collect in them and may be 
crushed or kilhnl with kerosene. Such a dust fiu-row w^ill be 
of no value in showeiy weather, and is most effective in hot dr_\- 
weather on light soil; it may often be used to advantage in 
combination with the following methods. 

In place of the dust furrow or in coml)ination with it, a strip 
of coaltar is often run arountl the field. The strip should be 
about the size of one's finger, which can be made l)y pouring 
from a watering can with the mouth stopped down, and should 
be run inside the dust furrow and with ])()st-h()les sunk along 
its outer edge. Sometimes it is run in a zig-zag line with the 
holes at the inner angles so that the bugs will l)e concentrated 
at the holes. These tar strips nuist be ficsiiened whenever dust 
or i-ul)bish covtM-s them. The soil nuiy be pri^pai'ed for the tar 
strip by plowing a back furrow and ])acklng the top with a 
roller or beating it hard with spades; or a sti'ip of sod may l)e 
pi-epar(Ml by scraping awa}' the grass with a farm sci-aper and 
then smoothing carefull}' with shovels or hoes; oi- a dead fui-row 
may be run and the tar strip run on the smooth bottom. To 
maintain such a tar strip for foui' weeks costs alnjut 12 a mile 
and has pioven itself entirely practical and effecti\'e. 

If the bugs have alread\' become numcM-ous in the outer rows of 
corn, most of them may be destroyed Ijy spraying with kerosene 
emulsion (see p. 4n) made to contain four per ccMit kerosene, apply- 
ing it in the earh' morning or towards night. It costs 84 cents a 

* Such a furrow may possibly he made more readily by plowing several 
furrows and harrowing the ground thoroughly until reduced to a fine mulch 
and then plowing a dead furrow through the middle, and then dragging this 
with a log, making the sides as steep as possible. With such construction 
the furrow will cost about three cents per linear rod. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 93 

barrel dilutod, and a man will sj)i'ay five acres per day, using a 
barrel per acre. Whale-oil soap, one-half pound to the gallon of 
water, has proven equally effective and cost $1.12 per barrel. 

A blast torch, for which an attachment is furnished with 
many of the compressed-air sprayers, may be vised to advantage 
for de-troying the bugs in a dust furrow or along the tar line, 
or a spray of pure kerosene or cmde petroleum may be used for 
the same purpose. 

Extensive experiments have ])een made in Illinois and Kansas 
with the use of the muscardine fungus against the chinch-bug. 
Though occasionally the results seem to be profitable, and though 
it is undo\ibtedly effective in wet seasons and it may be well 
to disti'ibute the fungus to places where it does not occur so 
that it may reduce the numbers of the bugs in wet seasons, 
it seems to be of very little value in dry seasons, when the 
injury is worst, and cannot be relied upon to check the increase 
of the pest when used according to the methods so far devised. ; 

When chinch-bugs Ijccome abundant and their migration to 
corn seems imminent, the farmer should prepare to devote himself 
and as many hands as necessary to fighting them until their 
advance is checked, for delay will mean ruin, while the prompt 
use of the above methods will save the corn crop. 

Grasshoppers or Locusts * 

Plagues of destructive locusts — or what we Americans call 
grasshoppers — have been recorded since the dawn of historj'. 
In America the worst devastation was done by the flights of 
the Rocky Mountain or Migrator}' Locust {Melanoplus spreius 
Thos.), which swooped down upon the States of the western 
part of the Mississippi ^'^alley in the years 1873 to 1876 in destruc- 
tive clouds. Since then they have several times done considerable 
injur}^ in restricted localities and are often destructive in northern 
Minnesota, ■ the Dakotas, Montana and Manitoba, but they will 
probably never again be a plague in the Central States. 

Concerning their recent distribution, numbers, and destruc- 
* ^'arious species of the family Arrididce. 



94 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

tivencss, Mr. W. D. Hunter reported after the season of 1897: 
" There was, this season, a general activity of this species through- 
out the permanent breeding region greater than at anytime in many 
years. This was brought about by a series of dry years, which 
have resulted in the abandonment of farms in man}- places. It is, 
of course, well understood that the absence of serious damage since 
1S76 has been partially due to the settling up of valleys in the per- 
manent i-egion. I wish to make it clear, however, that the dry- 
ness is th(^ pi'iinary and tlu^ al)andoning a secondary cause." 

The Rocky Mountain Locust 

Let us first consider this, the most injui'ious species, as the 
other locusts diffcn- fi'om it in but few essential points other 
than in being non-migratory. 

To correctly understand its habits the reader should first 
divid(» the area which this species affects into three parts. Of 
these the (1) " Permanent Region, including the highlands of 
Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado, forms the native l^reeding- 
grounds, where the species is always found in greater or less 
al)undance." * (2) the Subpermanent Region, including Man- 
itoba, the Dakotas, and western Kansas, is frequently invaded. 
Here the species may perpetuate itself for several years, but 
disappears from it in time. (3) The Temporary Region, including 
the States bordering the Mississippi River on the west, is that 
only periodically visited and from which the species generally 
disappears within a year. 

Sprcdd. — \\'heu for various reasons the locusts ]:)ecome excess- 
ively al)undant in the Permanent Region they spread to the 
Subpermanent Region, and from there migrate to the Tem- 
porary feeding-grounds. It is the latter area which suffers 
most severely from tlunr attacks, but, fortunately, they generally 
do not do serious injury the next year after a general migration. 
In the Subpermanent Region their injuries are more frecjuent 
than in the Temporaiy, but are hardly as severe or sudden as 
farther east. Migrating from their native haunts, flights of 
* Bull. 25, U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Entomology. C. V. Riley. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 95 



the grasshoppers usually reach southern Dakota in early summer, 
Colorado, Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, and western Kansas 
during midsummer, and southeastern Kansas and Missouri 
during late summer, appearing at Dallas, Texas, in 1874, and about 
the middle of October, and even later in 1876. As thus indi- 
cated, the flights are in a general south to southeasterly direction, 
while west of the Rockies they descend to the more fertile 
valleys and plains, but without any such regularity as eastward. 
While the rate of these flights is variable and entirely dependent 
upon local weather conditions, twenty miles per day may be 
considered a fair average. The flights are more rapid and more 
distance is covered in the early part of the season, when, while 
crossing the dry prairies, a good wind will often enable them 
to cover 200 to 300 miles in a day. As they first commence to 
alight in their new feeding-grounds their stay is limited to but two 
or three days, but later in the season it is considerably length- 





FiG. 62. — Rocky Mountain locust; adult and different stages of growth of 
young. (After Riley.) 

ened, and, after a section is once infested, swarms will be seen to be 
constantly rising and dropping during the middle of the day. 

Life History. — Over all the infested area, and while still sweep- 
ing it bare of crops and vegetation, the females commence to lay 
their eggs, and continue to deposit them from the middle of August 
until frost. For this purpose '' bare sandy places, especially on 
high, dry ground, which is tolerably compact and not loose," are 
preferred. "Meadows and pastures where the grass is closely grazed 
are much used, while moist or wet ground is generally avoided." 

In such places the female deposits her eggs in masses of about 
thirty. These are placed about an inch below the surface in 
a pod-like cavity, which is lined and the eggs are covered by a 



96 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



mucous fluid cxcretetl during ovipo.siiiun. From two to five hours 
arc required for tliis operation, and an average of three of these 
masses is deposited during a period of from six to eight weeks. 

As the time of ovipositing varies with the latitude, so the 
hatching of the eggs occurs from the middle or last of March 
in Texas till the mitldle of May or first of June in Minnesota 
and Manitoba. Until after the molt of the first skin, and often 
till after the second or third molt, the young nymphs are con- 
tent to feed in the immediate vicinity of their birth. When 
the food Ijecomes scarce they congregate together and in 




Fi(i. 03. — Rocky Mountain locusts: a, n, a, females in different positions, 
ovipositing; b, egg-pod extracted from ground, with end broken open; 
r, a few eggs lying loose on ground; d, e, show the earth partially removed, 
to illustrate an egg-mass already in place and one being placed; /shows 
where such an egg-mass has been covered up. (After Riley.) 

solid bodies, sometimes as much as a mile wide, march across 
the country, tlevouring evciy green crop and weed as they go. 
During cold or damp weather and at night they collect under 
rubbish, in stools of grass, etc., and at such times almost seem 
to have disappeared; but a few hours of sunshine brings them 
forth, as voracious as ever. When, on account of the immense 
numbers assembled together, it becomes impossible for all to 
obtain green food, the unfortunate ones first clean out the 
underbrush and then feed upon the dead leaves and bark of 
timber lands, and have often been known to gnaw fences and 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 97 

frame buildings. Stones of their incredible appetites are legion; 
a friend informs me that he still possesses a rawhide whip which 
they had quite noticeably gnawed in a single night! 

By mathematical computation it has l)een shown that sucii 
a swarm could not reach a point over thirty miles from its 
liirthplace, and as a mattei' of fact they liave never lieen known 
to proceed over ten miles. 




Fig, 64. — A swarm of grasshoppers attacking a wheat-fiekl. (After Riley.) 

As the nymphs liecome full grown they are increasingly 
subject to the attacks of predaceous bii-ds and insects, insect 
parasites, fungous and bacterial diseases, and are also largely 
reduced by the cannibalistic appetites of their own numbers. 
When the mature nymphs transform to adult grasshoppers and 
thus become winged, large swarms are seen rising from the 
fields and flving toward their native home in tlie Northwest. 



98 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

This usually takes place during June and early July in the 
North, and as early as April in Texas, so that it is frequently 
impossible to distinguish the broods of the temporary region 
from the incoming brood which has migrated from the permanent 
region. Although the eggs for a second brood are sometimes 
laid, these seldom come to maturity, and the species is essen- 
tially single-brooded. 

The Lesser Migratory Locust 

Besides the Rocky Mountain locust there is only one other 
species that truly possesses the habit of migrating, though to 
a far lesser extent, and which is therefore known as the Lesser 
Migratory Locust (Melanoplus atlaniis Riley). It is considerably 
smaller than its western relative and somewhat resembles the 
red-legged locust both in size and appearance. The species 
is very widely distributed, occurring from Florida to the Arctic 
Circle east of the Mississippi, and on the Pacific slope north of 
the fortieth parallel to the Yukon. The habits and life history 
of the species are in all essentials practically the same as the 
former species, except that they have no particular breeding- 
grounds. Injuries by this grasshopper were first noticed in 
1743, almost seventy-five years before the first record of the 
Rocky Mountain locust, and since then it has done more 
or less serious damage in some part of the territory inhabited 
every few years. 

Non-migratory Locusts 

There are several species of locusts which, though lacking 
the migratory habit, and thus being more easily controlled, 
often become so numerous as to do serious damage over limited 
areas. Both as regards the regions inhabited, its habits, and 
life history, the common Red-legged Locust {Melanoplus femur- 
rubrum Har.) hardly differs from the last species, and is often 
found in company with it. It is non-migratory, however, and 
though the damage it does is thus entirely local, it is often of 
considerable importance; 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 



99 




Fig. 65. — Red-legged 
{Melanoplus femur - 
Han-.). (After Riley.) 



locu.st 
rubrum 



Records of locust plagues in California date back as far as 
1722. Many of them were doubtless due to the California 
Devastating Locust (Melanoplus devastator Scud.), and in the 
last invasion of 1885 this species outnumbered all others seven 
to one. Resembling the last two 
species in size and markings, the 
habits and life history of this species 
are also supposed to be similar to 
them, though they have not as yet 
been thoroughly studied. 

Together with the last species 
the Pellucid Locust {Camnula 

pellucida Scud.) has been largely responsible for the losses occa- 
sioned by locusts in California, and has also been found in New 
England, but is not noted there as specially destructive. 

Our largest winged Amer- 
ican locust, the American 
Acridium (Schistocerca ameri- 
cana Scud.), is practically 
confined to the Southern 
States from the District of 
Columbia to Texas, and thence 
south through Mexico ami 
Central America, being rarely 
found in the North. This 
species is essentially a tropical 
one, and has often been ex- 
ceedingly destructive, being 
especially so in 1876 in 
Missouri, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, and southern Ohio. 
Considerabh' larger than the preceding species are the Dif- 
ferential Locust (Melanoplus differentialis Thos.) and the Two- 
.striped Locust (Melanoplus bivittatus Scud.), of which the former 
is peculiar to the central States of the Mississippi Valley, Texas, 
New Mexico, and California, while the latter has a more extended 
range from Maine to Utah and as far south as Carolina and 




Fig. 66. — The pellucid locust {Camnula 
pellucida Scud .) . (After Emerton, ) 



100 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Texas. These two differ from the smalk!r species in laying 
only one or two masses of eggs, and the eggs of differentialis 




Fir.. 07. — The American acridium (Srhisti-irerrn nmerirnnn Scud.). (.Xfter 

Riley.) 

liave often been f(nin(l placed under the l^ark of logs, but other- 
wise tlieir habits are very similar. The two-striped locust is 

characterized by two j'el- 
lowish stripes extending 
from the eyes along the 
sides of the head and 
thorax to the extremities 
of the wing-covers, and 

^ rr., m ■ , , .,,,!-'' probablv the species 

Fig. 68.— The Two-striped locust (Mdn- ^ ^ ^ 

nnplus hiiuttatii.s Scud.). (After Riley.) most commonly observed 

by the farmer. 
The Differeniial Locust. — Throughout tlie Mississippi Valley 
from Illinois southwai'd, the Differential Locust * is one of the 





Fig. 69. — The Differential locust {Melnnoplus differentialis Thos.). (After 

Riley.) 

most common and destructive grasshoppers, and is an excellent 
example of several of our more al)undant and injurious species 
which have vei'v simihii- habits. 



* Melanoplus differentialia Thos. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 101 

The little grasshoppers hatch about the middle of May, from 
eggs which were laid in the fall, though we have observed 
them in March in Central Texas, and arc of a dusky brown 





Fig. 70. — The southern lubber grasshopper (DirtyopliDrm relic il ilm) : nymph 
and adult, slightly enlarged. 

color, marked with yellow. The head and legs are the most 
prominent feature of the young nymphs. During their subse- 
quent growth they molt five times at 
intervals of ten da}'s to two weeks, the 
relative size and appearance of tlie 
different stages being shown in Fig. 
72. Professor H. A. Morgan, who 

made a careful study of an outbreak l''i«- 71.— Egg-mass of the 

. . ,T differential locust — enlarged. 

of this species in Mississippi m 1900, 

has given an interesting account of their growth and habits. 

" The young on first emerging from the eggs are sordid 

white and after an airing of an hour or two, an; darker, assuming 




102 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




Fig. 72. — Nymphs of the differential locust 
in different stages (1 to 5) of growth — 
all enlarged. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 103 

a color not unlike the dark-gray alluvial soil over which they 
feed. There are changes of color as the earlier stages are assumed, 
but until the close of the third stage these changes are not 
readily perceptible in the field to the naked eye. At the close 
of stage four the greenish yellow color becomes prominent on 
many forms, and in stage five the greenish yellow and yellow 
brown colors predominate. The vigorous feeding and rapid 
growth of the young in stages four and five, and the promi- 
nence of the wing-pads in stage five, cause the grasshoppers 
in these conditions to appear almost as conspicuous as adults. 

" The habits of the young are interesting, and a knowledge 
of some of them may be helpful in developing remedies. After 
hatching they remain for several hours in close proximity to 
the egg-pod from which they emerged. With this period of 
faint-heartedness over, they may venture out for a few yards 
each day into the grass, weeds, or crop neighl)oring the egg-ai'ea. 
Upon being disturbed they invariably make the effort to hop 
in the chrection of the so-called nest. Nymphs emerging from 
eggs on a ditch bank, if forced into the water, will seldom make 
the effort to reach the other side, but will turn back to the bank 
from which they were driven. As development takes place the 
extent of their peregrinations into the crop is easily traced by 
the shot-hole appearance of the leaves upon which they feed. 
The tender leaves of cocklebur are always preferred by the 
grasshoppers in the early stages. Young Bermuda grass is also 
a favorite food, and succulent grasses of all kinds are freely 
eaten. In the third, fourth, and fifth stages, as grass, weeds, 
and even shrul^s disappear along the ditch banks and bayous, 
the crops of corn and cotton adjacent begin to show signs of 
vigorous attack, and the march of destruction commences. ... A 
few hours before molting the grasshoppers tend to congregate 
and become sluggish. Molting varies as to time, and slightly 
as to manner, with different stages. In the early stages less 
time is required and the operation occurs on the ground or upon 
low bunches of grass and weeds. Every effort of the grass- 
hoppers at this time seems to be to avoid ccnspicuitj^, and in 



104 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



doing so spare tlieniselvcs, in a manner, enmity of parasites. 
After the molting of the first, second, and third stages it is not 
long before the young grasshoppers are sufficiently hardened to 
begin feeding again, but after the molt of the fourth and fifth 
stages, particularly the last molt, some time is required to 
extend the wings and dry and liaidcn the Ijody l)efore feeding 

is I'csumed. The last molt 
usually occurs on the upper 
and well-exposed leaves of 
coi'ii and other plants upon 
which they may be feeding, 
though it is not uncommon 
for tlie gi'asshoppers to di'op 
to the ground during the 
maneuvers of tiie process. 
The i-easou for the selection 
of the more exposed leaves 
for the last molt is obvious. 
The bodies are large, and 
rapid drying protects them 
from fungous diseases which 
lurk in the more shaded 
and moist sections during 
the months of June and 
July. The last prominent 
habit to which we call at- 
tention is that of the fully 
grown grasshoppers to seek 
the shade offered by the 
growing plants during the 
hottest part of the day." 
The hoppers become full grown about the first of July. The 
adult is about U inches long, its wings expand 2h inches, and 
it is of a bright yellowish-green color. The head and thorax 
are olive-brown, and the front wings are of much the same color, 
without other markings, but with a brownish shade at the base; 




Fui. 73. — Differential locust: last sta^e of 
nymph with its cast skin on tip of corn 
plant. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 105 

the hind-wings are tinged with green ; the hind-thighs are bright 
yellow, especially below, with four black marks; the hind-shanks 
are yellow with black spines and a ring of the same color near 
the base. The adults at once attack whatever crops are avail- 
able, often finishing the destruction of those injured by them as 
nymphs, but in a few days their appetites seem to become some- 
what appeased and they commence to mate and wander in search 
of suitable places for laying the eggs. Relatively few eggs are 
laid in cultivated ground, the favorite places being neglected fields 
grown up in grass and weeds, the cdg(\s of cultivated fields, private 
roadways, banks of ditches and small streams, and pasture lands. 
Alfalfa land is a favorite place for oviposition, and alfalfa is 
frequently seriously injured by this species. It is doubtless due 
these egg-laying habits and the abundance of food on uncultivated 
land that this species always increases enormously on land 
which has been flooded and then lies idle for a year or two. 
Most of the eggs are laid in August and early Septcmljer. Each 
female deposits a single egg mass of about 100 eggs just beneath 
the surface of the soil. During this season the females may 
frequently be found with the abdomens thrust deep in the 
soil, as the process of egg-laying recjuires some time. The 
eggs are yellow and' arranged irregularly in a mass which is 
coated with a gluey substance to which the earth adheres, which 
protects them from variable conditions of moisture and t(>m- 
perature. 

Enemies. — As before mentioned, large nunil)ers of the n}'mphs 
are destroyed before reaching maturity by their natural enemies. 
Among these a minute fungus undoubtedly kills many of those 
already somewhat exhaustc^d, especially during damp weather. 
Almost all of our common birds, as well as many of the smaller 
mammals, are known to feed quite largely upon them. 

A small red mite {Tromhidium locustarum Riley), somewhat 
resembling the common red spicier infesting greenhouses, is 
often of great value not only in killing the nymphs by great 
numbers of them sucking out the life-juices of the young hopper, 
but also in greedily feeding upon the eggs. 



106 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The maggots of several species of Tachina-flies are of con- 
siderable value in parasitizing both nymphs and adult locusts. 
Their eggs are laid on the neck of a locust, and, upon hatching, 




^ ^ C V - e£ 

Fig. 74. — A Locust-mite {Trombidium lociistaruyn): a, the larva as seen on 
locust's wing; c, male mite; d, female, the two latter appearing as when 
egg-destroyers — all greatly enlarged. (After Riley.) 

the maggots pierce the skin and live inside by al)sorbing its 
juices and tissues. When full grown the maggots leave the 
locust, descend into the earth, and there transform to pupas 




Fig. 75. — Anlhomtjia egg-parasite, a, fly; h, puparium; c, larva; d, head of 
larva. (After Riley.) 

inside of their cast skins, and fi'om the pupse the adult flies 
emerge in due time. 

The maggots of one of the Bee-flies (Systoechus oreas) feed 
upon grasshopper eggs, but their life history is not fully known. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 107 



The common Flcsh-fh' (Sarcophaga carnaria Linn.), Fig. 77, is 
also very destructive, though hirgely a scavenger. 





Fig. 76. — Two tachina-flies. {Exorista leucanice Kirk, and E. flavicauda 
Riley). (After Riley.) 

But of all the insects attacking locusts, the Blister-beetles, 
which, unfortunately, are often known to us as very injurious 
to various garden crops, arc 
probably of the most value. 
The female beetle deposits 
from four to five hundred of 
her yellowish eggs in irregular 
masses in loose ground, and 
in about ten days there hatch 
from these eggs some " very 
active, long - legged larvae, 
with huge heads and strong 
jaws, which run about everywhere seeking the eggs of locusts." 
Each of these larva will consume one of the masses or about 




Fig. 77. — Common flesh-fly (Sarco- 
phagn carnaria Linn.): a, larva; b, 
pupa; c, fly. Hair-lines show natural 
size. (After Riley.) 




-Various stages of a blister-beetle (Epicauta vittata) 




Fig. 78. — Various stages of a blister-beetle (Epicauta vittata). (After Riley.) 

thirty eggs. The subsequent life history of these insects is very 
complicated on account of their peculiar habits, but the various 
stages are shown in Fig. 78. 



108 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Control. — As the eggs are usually laid in the ground in the 
fall, deep plowing in late fall or early spring effectually buries 
them too deep for the young nymphs to emerge. On alfalfa 
land thorough disking is often used for the same purpose. 
Thorough harrowing in the fall so as to pulverize the soil for 
the depth of an inch will break up many of the egg masses, 
though it is not as sure a control as plowing them under. 

When the young emerge, they may sometimes be destroyed 
by burning over stubble, grass and rubbish where it is present 
in sufficient quantites, or by augmenting it with straw, which 
may be done to advantage on cold days when the nymphs are 
congregated in such shelter. If the surface of the ground is 
smooth and hard many may be killed by the use of a heavy 
roller, particularly in the morning and evening, when they are 
sluggish in their movements. Plowing a badly infested field 
in a square, working toward the centre sx) as to drive the young 
nymphs inward, will result in burying many of them in the furrows, 
and the last may be burned or trapped in holes as described 
below. Simple ditches 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep form 
effectual barriers for the young hoppers. The sides next to the 
crop to be protected should be kept finely pulverized l)y hauling 
a log or a brush of dead branches through the ditch. The ditch 
may be made as described for chinch-bugs and is handled in 
the same manner, the little hoppers drifting to the bottom of 
the ditch, where they are killed by the heat on a hot day or 
where they are caught in post-holes sunk every few feet in the 
bottom of the ditch. This method may be used to advantage 
in plots of corn, cotton, or garden truck which has already 
become infested, by running furrows around the field and occa- 
sionally through it, and then driving the young hoppers toward 
them, which may be readily done by a number of children armed 
with branches. Where ditches containing water arc available 
the young hoppers may be very effectively destroyed by oiling 
the surface of the water with kerosene emulsioii (p. 48) and 
then driving them into the ditches, for even if they succeed in 
crawling out they will succumb to the oil. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 109 



Where the young hoppers have congregated in large numbers 
on the edge of fields, in patches of weeds, etc., they may be 
destroyed by spraying them with kerosene or crude petroleum 
either pure or, prefei'al)ly, in an emulsion, and the weeds and 




FiQ. 79. — Simple coal-oil pan or hoppenlozer. (After Riley.) 




Fig. 80. — The Price oil-pan or hopperdozer, with partitions to prevent 
slopping. (After Riley.) 

grass along fences and in neglected fields should be thoroughly 
treated with a strong arsenical spray or dust. 

In pastures, small grains or any crops permitting their use, 
immense numbers of the nymphs may be caught by the use 



no INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




03 



bC 

1-5 



&, 
o 

o 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 111 

of hopperdozers, which may be utilized where the use of poisoned 
bran would not be possible. The hopperdozer consists of a 
shallow pan containing water with a surface of kerosene, crude 
petroleum, or coal tar, which is sometimes used without water. 
The pan is mounted on runners or wheels and if larger than about 
3 feet square is usually provided with partitions to prevent 
slopping. The back and sides are high and sometimes are made 
of canvas. " A good cheap pan is made of ordinary sheet 
iron, 8 feet long, 11 inches wide at the bottom, and turned 




Fig. 82. — Carolina locust killed by fuiigou.s disease. (Photo by Weed.) 

up a foot high at the back and an inch high in front. A 
runner at each end, extending some distance behind, and a 
cord attached to each front corner, complete the pan at a cost 
of al)out $1.50 (Fig. SO). We have known of from seven to 
ten bushels of young locusts caught with one such pan in an 
afternoon. It is easily pulled by two l)oys, and by running 
several together in a row, one boy to each rope, and one to 
each contiguous pair, the best work is performed with the 



112 INSECT PESTS OF FARiM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

least labor." Larger pans are drawn or pushed by horses. The 
oil is best used on the surface of water, from which the insects 
are removed with a strainer, and any which hop out will die 
after having come in contact with the oil. 

Destroying the Adults. — The destruction of the winged insects 
is an entirely hopeless task, for, though even large nilmbers 
are caught, so many will remain that the damage done the 
crops would be but very slightly diminished. One of the most 
promising means for averting the swarms of winged migratory 
locusts from alighting in the fields is by a dense smudge, in 
which some foul-smelling substances arc placed. Where strictly 
attended, and wuth favorable winds, this has often proved highly 
successful. To accomplish the best results farmers over an 
extensive area should com])inc in its use. 

The South African Fungus. — In 11)00 Professor Morgan made a 
test of a fungous disease which had been found to destroy large 
numbers of grasshoppers in South Africa, to detei-mine whether, 
after starting it by artificial propagation, it would spread suffi- 
ciently to destroy any considerable numl)er of locusts. The 
weather was favorable, rains being frequent. Early in August 
it was found that " over the areas where the liquid infection 
was spread diseased hoppers were abundant." " As many as 
a dozen dead grasshoppers could be found upon a single plant, 
and some upon nearly every weed on ditch-lianks where grass- 
hoppers were numerous. From the centres of infection great 
areas had become inoculated, spreading even beyond the planta- 
tions first infected." The property upon which it was placed 
became thoroughly infected with the fungus. Strangely, though 
many other species of grasshoppers were abundant, only the 
differential locust was killed by it. Dr. Howard states that this 
disease has also spread and done effective work in Colorado. 
However, more recent experiments made by the writer in Texas 
gave only negative results, and it is doubtful if any reliance can 
be placed upon the artificial use of such fungous diseases for 
locust control. 

Poisoning. — A mash composed of bran, molasses, water, and 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 113 

arsenic or Paris green, which has been extensively used for cut- 
worms, was found to be quite successful in the experiments 
of Mr. D. W. Coquillet in the San Joaquin Valley, California, 
during 1885, for protecting orchards, vineyards, gardens, etc., 
and might even be of some value for grain crops. Two pounds 
of Paris green, 25 pounds of bran, barely moistened with 
water and cheap molasses, will ho al)Out the correct propor- 
tion. It should be placed in the fields, a tablespoonful to 
each plant or vine. At this rate the cost per acre of vineyard, 
including lal:)oi', will not exceed fifty cents. The poison acts 
slowdy, but if judiciously used will lie found very effective, 
especially for the non-migratory forms. In Texas the mash 
has been found satisfactory in destroying the grasshoppers 
attacking cotton. One planter writes: " We are successfully 
using arsenic (for grasshoppers) at the following rates: 10 pounds 
of wheat bran, H gallons sorghum molasses, 1 pound arsenic. 
Make a thick mash, sow l)roadcast on infected ground, and 
it will siu'ely kill them. I used 40 pounds last year and made 
49 bales of cotton. My neighbors did not do anything and 
entirely lost their crop." The writer has also seen excellent 
results from tlie use of the mash in Texas with only one pound of 
])oison to 25 pounds of bran. However, Professor Morgan con- 
cluded that " the mash cannot be relied upon in severe outbreaks, 
such as occurred in the delta, but may be used in limited attacks 
where the area affected would not warrant the more aggressive 
methods." 

" When grasshoppers are young or half -grown, a poisonous 
bait, known as the Griddle Mixture, has proved effective in 
many parts of the country (particularly for the Rocky Mountain 
locust). This consists of one part of Paris green and about 
one hundred parts of fresh horse manure, by measure. Enough 
water is added to make the mass soft without ]>eing sloppy. 
It can be taken to the field by a wagon or stone l)oat and 
scattered about by means of a paddle." — Washburn. 



114 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



The Army Worm* 

Almost every year some locality reports serious injury to 
crops by armies of caterpillars, which have not been previously 
known for manj' years. This being the case the farmers are 
at a loss to combat them, and by the time information has been 
secured the pests have completed the damage. The Army 
Worm occurs throughout the United States east of the Rocky 
Mountains and lives in low, rank growths of grass, which form 
the normal breeding-grounds. When from an al^undance of 
such food, or through failure of the parasites to prevent their 

increase, the caterpillars be- 
come overabundant, they as- 
sume the army hal^it and 
march en masse, consuming 
all in their path. 

The next year their natural 
enemies will usiuxlly have them 
under control again and there 
will be but little damage, and 
then they will not l)e observed 
as injurious for a series of 
years, though the moths are 
always fairly common. 

LifeHistori/. — In the North 
the moths appear early in June 
and the females lay the small yellowish eggs in rows of from 
ten to fifty in the unfolded bases of the grass leaves, covering 
them with a thin layer of glue. Over seven hundi-ed may be 
deposited by one female, so that when the young caterpillars 
hatch in about ten days, the progeny of a few moths might 
form a quite destructive army. The worms usually feed entirely 
at night, and thus whole fields will sometimes be ruined before 
they are discovered, though a few generally feed by day, as 
they all do in cloudy weather. The leaves and stalks of grains 

* Lcucania unipuncta Ilaworlh. Family Xuctuidce, 




Fig. 83. — Army-worm moth (Lcucania 
unipuncta) , pupa, and eggs in natural 
position in a grass-leaf. Natural size. 
(After Comstock.) 



I 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS. GRASSES, FORAGE 115 




Fig. 84, — Army worms at work on corn-plant. (After Slingerland.) 



IK) INSECT PESTS OF FARM. GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




and grasses form their favorite food, the heads usually being 
cut off, but various garden crops are often seriously injured if 
they happen in their path. Though usually untouched, even 
clover is not exempt. In from three to four weeks the 
worms have become full grown and are then about 1^ to 2 
inches long, of a dark gray or dingy black color, with three 
narrow, yellowish stripes above, and a slightly broader and 
darker one on each side, quite resembling cutworms, to 
which they are nearly related. They now enter the earth and 
transform to pupae, from which the adult moths emerge in about 

two weeks. These lay eggs 
for another brood of worms 
which appear in September, 
but are very rarely injuri- 
ous. The moths which de- 
velop from this last brood 
either hibernate overwinter, 
or deposit eggs, the larvae 
from which become partially 
grown before cold weather 

and then hibernate. In 
b 

Fig. 86.— a, head either case the young larvae 
of fall army feed in the spring, not usu- 

FiG. 85. — An army worm; 6, head of n i • v, i 

, + „ ^ _ ally domg much damage, 

w o r m — a bout army worm — j b & > 

one-third en- enlarged. (After pupate in May, and the 

larged. (After Chittenden U. S. n.oths of the first genera- 

Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) , . * 

Dept. Agr.) tion appear in June as 

already described. Thus in the North there are three broods 
a year, the young larvae usually hibernating, while in the 
South there may be as many as six generations, and the 
moths usually hibernate over winter and lay their eggs in the 
spring. 

The moths very often fly into lights and are among the com- 
monest of our plan " millers." The front wings are a clay or 
fawn color, specked with black scales, marked with a darker 
shade or stripe at the tips, and with a distinct spot at the centre, 




INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 117 

which gives the specific name unipunda. The hind-wings are 
somewhat Hghter with blackish veins and darker margins. 

Enemies. — Were it not for other insects which prey upon the 
army worm, the arm}- habit would doubtless be more often 
assumed and we should have to deal with them more frequently. 
Ordinarily, however, the parasitic and predaceous insects hold 
them in check very efficiently and when an outbreak does occur, 
the later broods of the same season are often entirely destroyed by 
their insect enemies. Large numbers are always destroyed by the 




Fig. 87. — The farmer's friend, the red-tailed tachina-fly (Winthemia \-pustu- 
latd): a, natural size; h, much enlarged; r, army worm on which fly 
has laid eggs, natural size; d, same, much enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 



predaceous ground-beetles and their larvae (p. 14), but their 
most deadly enemies are the tachina-flies (p. 106). These lay 
from a dozen to fifty eggs on a caterpillar, and the maggots 
from them enter the body and absorb the juices and tissues of 
the host, thus soon killing it. When feeding at night the worms 
are ordinarily free from these parasites, but when the marching 
habit is assumed the flies swarm around them on cloudy days 
and before the next year they again have the remnants of the 
voracious army under subjection. Therefore, worms with the 



118 INSECT PESTS OF FARM/ GARDEN 'AND ORCHARD 

tacliina-lly eggs on tlicni (Fig. S7) ■ytiuuld never be destroyed 
where avoidable. 

Control. — When detected, all efforts should be centred on 
keeping the worms out of crops not yet attacked and confining 
their injury to as small an area as possible. As a barrier to 
their progress, there is nothing better than a dust furrow made 
as already described for chinch-bugs (p. 91), two or three of 
which may be found necessary in cool weather or where a fine 
dust cannot be maintained. 

Deep fall plowing and thorough harrowing will be effective 
against the hibernating larva', as will the burning of all grass 
along ditches, fences, and spots where the larva? normally live. 

By thorough spraying, or perhaps better by dusting, a strip 
of the crop with Paris green or some arsenical, and liberally 
distributing poisoned bran mash (sec p. 47), large numbers 
may be destroyed. Where they are massed in furrows they 
may be destroyed 1)}' spraying them with })ure kerosene or crude 
petroleum. 

As in fighting chinch-bugs the army worm must be given 
immediate and conclusive combat if the loss of crops is to be 
prevented, for they move rapidly and destroy all in their path. 

The Fall Army Worm * 

Though somewhat the same in its habits as the true army 
worm, the VnW Army Worm is so called because it appears later 
in the season, the former species being rarely injurious after 
August 1st. It is also more omnivorous, for while the army 
worm prefers grasses, and grains, the fall army worm feeds 
upon a large variet}' of crops, including sugar-beets, cow-peas, 
millet, sweet potatoes, and many other forage and truck crops. 
In Nebraska and the Central West it is a serious pest of alfalfa 
and is called the Alfalfa Worm. It is also sometimes very de- 
structive to lawns, as was the case in Chicago in 1S99. The fall 
army worm is more of a native of the Southern States, but 
occurs from Canada to the Gulf and west to the Rockies. 
* Laphygma frugiperda S. and A. Family Noctuida. 



INSECTS AFFECTING GRAINS, GRASSES, FORAGE 119 



At first glance the caterpillars have much the same general 
appearance as the army worm, but closer examination reveals 
marked differences. Along each side of the body is a longitudinal 
pitch-colored stripe, and along the middle is a yellowish-gray 
stripe about twice as wide, which includes four black dots on 
each segment. The caterpillars assume the habit of working 
in armies, but usually do not feed in such large numbei-s as the 
true arm)' worms and thus ai'C more difficult to combat. 

Life History. — The wintei- is passed in the pupal state, the 
pupse being about one-half 
inch long and being found 
in cells one-quarter to one- 
half an inch below the sur- 
face. The moths emerge 
in the spring and tlie 
females lay their eggs on 
grass in clusters of fifty or 
more, each mass being 
covered with the mouse- 
colored haii's from the body 
of the female. The eggs 
hatch in about ten days 
and the caterpillars are 
found during May and 
June. The complete life 
history of the insect has 
not been carefully followed, 
but it seems probable that 
there are but two complete generations in the North, three gen- 
erations in the latitude of central and southern Illinois and the 
District of Columbia, and four in the extreme South. In any 
event, the destructive brood of caterpillars appears in August and 
earl}^ September. 

The parent moth is of a " general yellowish, ash-gray color, 
with the second pair of wings almost transparent, but' with a 
In extent of wings it measures about Ij 




Fig. 88. — The fall army-worm: a, moth, 
plain gray form; b, fore wing of Pro- 
denia-like form; c, larva extended; d, 
abdominal segment of larva, side view; 
e, pupa; d, twice natural size, others 
enlarged one-fourth. (After Chittenden, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



purplish reflection. 



120 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

inches, and when closed the length of the insect is about three- 
quarters of an inch. The front wings are mottled or marbled, 
especially near the central area, and usually there is visible 
a fine white line a short distance from the edge and parallel 
to it. The hind-wings have a fringe of darker hair as well 
as veins that contrast somewhat with the lighter portion " 
(Fig. S8). 

Control. — Deep fall plowing and thorough harrowing will 
break up the pupal cells and thus largely prevent the develop- 
ment of the spring brood of moths. In perennial crops like 
alfalfa thorough disking may be used and on lawns deep raking 
with a long-toothed steel rake will kill many of the pupae. In 
fields of young grain and on lawns many of the caterpillars may 
be killed by a heavy roller. When not present in too large 
numbers, the worms may be destroyed by spraying the food 
plants with Paris green, arsenate of lead or other arsenicals, 
or by the use of poisoned bran mash. When present in large 
numbers and the army habit is assumed they should be com- 
bated the same as the army worm. 



CHAPTER VIII 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS * 

Meadow-maggots or Leather- jackets f 

Several instances have been recorded in which serious injury 
has been done to wheat, clover, timothy, and blue grass by 
the larvse of Crane-flies. These insects are never so injurious 
in this country as in Europe, where they are known as " daddy- 
long-legs," the common name of our harvest-spiders, though 
doubtless injury done by them is often attributed to other insects. 
The farmer usually declares the Avork to be that of wireworms 
or cutworms, the adults often being known as " cutworm-flies," 
unless the maggots are so abundant as to attract his attention. 
When the maggots are abundant enough to do much injury, 
thej^ usually occur in very large numbers, but ordinarily, though 
common everywhere, they are not numerous enough to attract 
attention. 

Several species {Tipula bicornis Loew, T. costalis Say, and 
Pachyrrhinis sp.?) have at various times done considerable 
damage in localities in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and elsewhere. 

Life History — So far as studied, the life histories of these 
species seem to be much the same. The larvse remain dormant 
over winter, but evidently commence feeding again very early 
in the spring, a wheat-field having shown the effects of their 
injuries from February 1st to April 1st. The larvae become 
full grown from the latter part of April until the middle of Ma}', 
depending upon the species and season. The full-grown maggots 
are about an inch long, of a dirty-grayish color, and of a tough, 

* See " The Principal Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat," C. L. Marlatt, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 132, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
t Family TipulidcB. 

121 



122 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



leathery texture. They arc nearly cylintlrical, somewhat tapcr- 
mg in front and terminating bluntly behind. Legs are entirely 
wanting, but at the blunt end are a few fleshy processes and a 
pair of small, horny hooks. The larvse seem to prefer low, moist 
ground, and will live for some time on land entirely flooded or 
in a ditch. They feed very largely on dead vegetable matter, 

but when exces- 
sively abundant 
they attack the roots 
of wheat, grass, and 
clover, so weaken- 
ing them near the 
surface that the 
plants, deprived of 
p rope r nourish- 
ment, are killed and 
loosened from the 
ground. 

Pupffi may be 
found during the 
latter part of Ma}', 
occupying small 
cells in a vertical 
position near the 
surface of the soil. 
Prior to emerging 
the adult pushes 
from one-half to 
two-thirds of the 
Ixxly above the sur- 
face and remains in this pose for several hours. The males 
usually emerge first, as their assistance is required by the 
females, which are loaded down with eggs, to extricate them- 
selves from the pupal skins. The sexes pair immediately, there 
being many more males than females — one observer states one 
hundred to one— and the females deposit their eggs upon grass 




Fiti. S"». 



\ ("raric-fly {T'ipula liebes Loew): mule 
adult. (After Weed.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 123 

and clover lands, to the number of three hundred each. Eggs 
are laid for another brood in September, the maggots from which 
live over winter. 

Remedies.— Injury to wheat-land may be largely prevented 
by plowing early in September. 

No satisfactory remedy for the maggots is known when 
injuring clover, timothy, or grass, although large numbers have 
been destroyed by driving a flock of sheep over infested 
land. Dr. S. A. Forbes states that " close trampling of the 
earth by the slow passage of a drove of pigs would doubtless 
answer the same purpose, which is that of destroying the larva 
lying free upon the surface or barely embedded among the roots 
of the grass." 

Several of our common birds as well as a number of ground- 
beetles feed upon the maggots and flies. The maggots are 
also sometimes attacked by a fungous disease which in the 
damp soil in which they live doubtless grows and spreads 
rapidly. Altogether these different enemies keep them so well 
in check that they rarely become of importance. 

The Hessian Fly * 

The Hessian fly is much the most destructive of any of the 
insects attacking wheat, to which its injury is practically con- 
fined; for though it occasionally injures barley and rye, it has 
never been reared on other grains *or grasses. Its name was re- 
ceived from the fact that it was first noticed on Long Island in 
1779, near where the Hessian troops had landed three years before. 
It now occurs over the main wheat-growing area of the eastern 
United States between parallels 35° and 45° westward to the 100th 
meridian, on the Pacific coast, in Canada, and in many other parts 
of the world where wheat is grown. Not infrequently it destroys 
25 to 50 per cent of the whole crop in some localities, and it has 
been estimated that 10 per cent of the crop of the whole country 
is lost from its ravages. 

Life History. — The adult flies are little dark-colored gnats about 
* Mayeiiola destructor Say. Family Cecidomyidos, 



124 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



one-tenth inch long, so small as to commonly escape observation. 
Each female lays 100 to 150 minute reddish eggs, one-fifteenth 
inch long, placing them in irregular rows of from three to five or 
more, usually upon the upper surface of the leaves. In a few daj's 
these hatch into small, reddish maggots, which soon turn white, 
are cylindrical, about twice as long as broad and have no true head 
or legs. The fall brood of maggots burrow beneath the sheaf of 
the leaf and its base, causing a slight enlargment at the point of 




Fig. 90. — ^The Hessian fly {Mayetiola destructor): a, female fly; b, flaxseed 
stage or pupa; c, larva; d, head and breast-bone of same; e, pupa; 
/, puparium; g, infested wheat-stem showing emergence of pupae and 
adults. (After Marlatt,, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

attack; but in the spring they usually stop at one of the lower 
joints, in both instances becoming fixed in the plant, absorbing 
its sap and destroying the tissues. The first indications of the 
work of the maggots on winter wheat in the fall are the tendency 
of the plants to stool out, the dark color of the leaves, and the 
absence of the central stems. Later man}' of the plants yellow 
and die. The spring maggots attack the laterals, or tillers, which 
have escaped the previous brood, so weakening them that the 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



125 



stems break and fall before ripening and cannot be readily har- 
vested. 

A])oiit four weeks after hatching the maggots are full grown, 
and are gi'eenish-white and about three-sixteenths inch long. The 
skin then turns brown, shrivels slightly, and inside it is formetl the 
pupa. This outside case, composed of the cast larval skin, is known 
as the " puparium," and this stage is commonly called the "flax- 
seed " from the resemblance to that seed. In this stage most of 
the fall brood passes the winter, the flies emerging in April or May, 
while the summer 
brood remains in 
the "flaxseed" stage 
in the stubble dur- 
ing the late sum- 
mer and emerges 
when the first wheat 
is planted in the 
fall, emerging later 
further south. 

Several species 
of small chalcis flies 
(page 19) parasitize 
the larvae and pupae, 
and were it not for 
their assistance it 
would doubtless be 
difficult to raise 
wheat. As yet no 
practical method 

of increasing their abundance has been devised, though colonies 
have been carried to regions where they were scarce. 

Control. — The principal means of avoiding injury Ijy the Hes- 
sian fly in the winter wheat regions is late planting in the fall. 
Inasmuch as the flies appear within about a week and then dis- 
appear, if planting be delayed until after that time, but little of the 
wheat will be injured. Dry weather in late summer and early 




Fig. 91. — The Hessian fly, adult male — greatly 
enlarged. (After Marlatt, U. S. D. Agr.) 



126 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

fall will delay the appearance of the flies, even with normal tem- 
perature conditions, and the further south, the later they appear. 
From experiments being conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Ento- 
molojiy, Professor F. M.Webster states that the following dates will 
probal)lv ])e found safe for sowing wheat in average seasons: in 




Fig. 92. — "Flax-seeds" or puparia of tlie Hessian fly on young wheat — 
enlarged. (After Pettit.) 

northern ]\Iichigan soon after the 1st of Septeml^er; in southern 
Michigan and northern Ohio, about September 20th; in southern 
Ohio after the first week in October; in Kentucky and Tennessee, 
October 10th to 20th; in Georgia and South Carolina, October 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



127 



25th to November L5tli. The exact time will also depend upon 
altitude as well as latitude. 

A rotation of the wheat crop compels the flies when they emerge 
from the stubble to travel in search of the young wheat plants. 
Should storms or heavy winds occur, the frail little flies will be de- 
stroyed in large numbers, whereas if they found wheat immedi- 
ately available the mortality would be small. 

Inasmuch as most of the spring brood remain in the stubble 
in the flaxseed stage after harvest, if the fields be then burned 
over, large numbers will be destroj-ed. This may be done by cut- 



A 



y 





Fig. 93. — Hessian fly: a, egg, greatly enlarged; b, section of wheat-leaf 
showing eggs as usually deposited — less enlarged; c, larva; d, pupa 
taken from puparium or "flaxseed" — e; c, d, e, much enlarged. (After 
Webster and Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



ting the grain rather high at harvest, and then mowing the weeds 
and grass and allowing them to dr\- a few tlays before burning. 
Unfortunately this practice is often impossil)lc, owing to the prac- 
tice of seeding wheat land to grass and clover. 

As early volunteer plants always become badly infested and the 
pupae wintering on them give rise to a spring brood which attacks 
the main crop, all volunteer plants should l)c destroyed by plowing 
or disking before the larvte have matured. This principle has some- 
times been utilized in the form of a trap crop, strips of wheat being 
sown early so as to attract the flies and then being plowed under 



128 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

after the bulk of the eggs had been laid upon them, thus protecting 
the main crop, planted later. 

The enrichment of the soil, the preparation of a good seed bed, 
and the use of good seed, so as to secure a vigorous growing crop, 
are all of the greatest importance in overcoming injury by the 
Hessian fly. After the crop is once attacked, no truly remedial 
measures are known except to apply liberally some quick-acting 
fertilizer which will cause the plants to tiller freely and give them 
sufficient vigor to withstand the winter and thus increase the 
healthy stems the next spring. 

Though none are exempt from attack, those varieties of wheat 
" with large, coarse, strong straw are less liable to injury than 
weak-strawed and slow-growing varieties." * In New York in 
many localities in 1901 a wheat called Dawson's Golden Chaff was 
found to be but little injured, where others were nearly destroj'ed. 
However, in Canada, where this variety originated, it is as seriously 
injured as other kinds, and may become so in New York. Bearded 
Red Wheat No. 8 was also found to be a very resistant variety, as 
were Prosperity, Democrat, Red Russian, and White Chaff Medi- 
terranean. It should be remembered, however, that none of 
these are invariably " fly-proof," and that though under certain 
conditions they may be but little injured, in other localities and 
under less favorable circumstances they may be injured as much 
as any other sorts. 

Among other conclusions Professor Roberts* and his colleagues 
state that the fly '' injures wheat more on dryish and poor land 
than on moist but well-drained, rich soils." Also, " that the soil 
must be so well fitted and so fertile that a strong, healthy growth 
will be secured in the fall, though the sowing of the seed be delayed 
ten to fifteen days beyond the usual time. Such preparation of 
the soil will also help the wheat to recover from any winter injury. 
Thick seeding and vigorous growth also tend to ward off the fly." 
" Much stress should be laid on the proper fitting of the land for 
wheat. Plowing should be done early — at least six weeks before 

* Cornell University A^r. Exp. Sta., Bulletin 194: The Hessian Fly, I. P, 
Roberts, M. V. Slingerland, and J. L. Stone. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 129 

sowing — to give abundant time for the repeated working of the 
soil in order to recompact the subsurface soil and secure a fine but 
shallow seed-bed in which there has been developed, by tillage and 
the action of the atmosphere, an abundance of readily available 
plant food. Manures and fertilizers should be kept near the sur- 
face and the young roots encouraged to spread out on the surface 
soil, thus avoiding much of the damage by heaving in winter and 
leaving the deeper soil for fresh pasturage for the plants during 
the following spring and summer." 

In summarizing his knowledge of means of controlling this 
pest, Professor F. M. Webster, who is probably our best authority 
upon it ,says: " After thirteen years of study of the Hessian fly, 
I am satisfied that four-fifths of its injuries may be prevented by 
a better system of agriculture. For years I have seen wheat grown 
on one side of a division-fence without the loss of a bushel by 
attack of this pest, while on the other side the crop was invariably 
always more or less injured. No effect of climate, meteorological 
conditions, or natural enemies could have brought about such a 
contrast of results. The whole secret was in the management 
of the soil and the seeding." 

The Wheat Saw-fly Borer * 

The " Corn Saw-fly " has for many years been a well-known 
wheat pest throughout England, France, and the Continent, 
but was not noted as injurious in this country till 1889, when 
Professor J. H. Comstock published a very complete account 
of its injuries upon the University Farm at Ithaca, N. Y., where 
it had done more or less damage for two years, though Mr. 
F. H. Chittenden states that he collected a single adult at Ithaca 
in the early '80's. Specimens were also collected at Ottawa, 
Canada, and Buffalo, X. Y., in 1887 and 1888, and injury has been 
reported by Dr. James Fletcher from Manitoba and the Northwest 
Territories. The injury under Dr. Fletcher's observation, how- 
ever, was probably due to a nearly related species, the Western 

* Cephus pygmceus Linn. Family Cephid(e. Bulletin 11, Cornell Univ. 
Agr. Exp. Station. 



130 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



Grass-stem Saw-fly {Cephns occidentalis Riley and Marlatt). 
This is a native species which normally lives in wild grasses and 
which has been quite injiuious in certain sections of the North- 
west during recent }'ears. It habits and the means of control 
are practically identical with the species here discussed. f 

The following is gleaned fiom Professoi' Comstock's interesting 
account. 

Injury. — Xo external indications of injury to the plant can 

be seen until the larva within 
luis almost completely tunneled 
tiie stalk, at which time there 
is a discoloration just below the 
injured joints. Thus damage by 
this insect is not readily noticed, 
it merely dwarfing and stunting 
the growth of the plant by bor- 
ing in the stem. 

" If infested straws be ex- 
amined a week or ten days before 
the ripening of the wheat, the 
cause of this injury can be found 
at work within them. It is at 
that time a yellowish, milky- 
white woi-m, varying in size from 
one-fifth to one-half an inch in 
length. The smaller ones may 
not have bored through a single 
joint; while the larger ones will 
have tuimeled all of them, except, 
perhaps, the one next to the ground. 

Life History. — " As the grain becomes ripe the larva works 
its way toward the gi-ound ; and at the t ime of harvest the greater 
number of them have peneti-ated the root. Here, in the lowest 
part of the cavity of the straw, they mak(> preparations for pass- 
ing the winter, and even for their escape from the straw the 
t See F. M. Webster, Circular 117, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 




Fig. 94. — The wheat saw-fly borer 
{Cephus pygmceus Linn.): a, out- 
line of larva, natural size ; b, larva, 
enlarged ; c, larva in wheat-stalk, 
natural size; d, frass; e, adult 
female;/, Pachyonerufs colcitrdtor, 
female, a parasite — enlarged. 
(After Curtis, from "Insect Lift'.'^) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 131 

following year. This is done by cutting the straw circularly 
on the inside, nearly severing it a short distance, varying from 
one-half to one-inch, from the ground. If the wheat were grow- 
ing wild, the winter winds would cause the stalk to break at 
this point; and thus the insect after it had reached the adult 
state could easily escape; while l)ut for this cut it would be very 
liable to Ik^ imprisoned in the straw." Ordinarily, the straw is 
cut by the reaper before it becomes broken; but a strong wind 




Fig. 95. — The western grass-stem saw-fly {Cephus occidentalis) : a, larva; 
b, female saw-fly; c, grass-stem showing work, c, enlarged, a, b, more 
enlarged. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

just before harvest will cause a large number of stalks to become 
broken, much as if affected by the Hessian fly. 

" After the circular cut has been made, the larva fills the 
cavity of the straw just below it for a short distance with a plug 
of borings. Between this plug and the lower end of the cavity 
of the straw there is a place about one-half an inch in length. 
It is here that the insect passes the winter." This cell is lined 
with silk so as to form a warm cocoon. Here the larva passes 
the winter and changes to a pupa in March or April. The adult 
insect emerges early in May. The adults arc four-winged insects, 



132 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

and are popularly known as saw-llics on account of tlic saw-like 
ovipositor of the fcni;ilc, by means of which she inserts her 
eggs in the 1 issue of tlic |)laiit. 'i'his species is (juite different in 
some respects fi'om the saw-(lies feeding' upon llic leaves of wheat, 
and belongs to the family lU'pliidw. 

The female commences to lay eggs by the nu'ddle of May. 
By means of her shai'p ovipositor she makes a very small slit 
any place in th(> stalk of \\\v plant and in this thrusts a small 
white egg — about '/loo '*' '"' """'' long — which is pushed (dear 
through the walls of the stfaw and left adhering; to the inside. 
Though several eggs ai-e deposited in a straw, but one larva 
usually develops. " The eggs hatch soon after they are laid, 
and the larvae may develop (piitc rapidly. A larva which 
hatched from an egg laid I\Iay 13th was found tfO have 
tunneled the entire length of the stalk in which it was" on May 
2Sth. 

Remedies. — " The most oIjnIous method of combating the 
insect is to attack it while it is in the stubble; that is, sometime 
between harvest and the following May. If the stubble can be 
burned in the autumn, the larvae in it can be destroyed. The 
same thing co\dd be accomplished l)y plowing the stnbMe undei', 
which would prevent the escape of the adult flies, liut as it is 
(often) custonuuy ... to sow grass-seed with wheat, it is feared 
that the plowing undei' of infested stubble would rarely be prac- 
ticaljle; and it is also questionable if the burning of the stubble 
could be thoi'oughly done without destroying the young grass. 
It would seem jjrobable, thei'efoi'e, that if this insect becomes 
a vei'y serious pest, it will be necessary. . . either to sow grass- 
seed with oats and bui'ii oi' plow und(>r all the wheat stubble, 
or to suspend growing; wheat foi' one year, in order to destro}' 
the insects by starxation." 

Some Wheat-maggots 

Xvry similar to the Hessian liy in its mode of injui'ing the 
wheat-stalk is the Wheat -stem Maggot {Meromyza aniericana 
Fitch). The adult (lies weic first described b\ Dr. fitch in IS.'j'o, 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



L33 



though the work of the niaf^gols liad picjbaljly been noticed as 
early as 1S21 l)y James Worth of Hacks County, Pa., and by the 
Michujan Farmer in Micliifi;an about bS4.'5. 

I']xtending from Dakota and Manitoba to Texas, the range 
of this insect practically covers all the (!astern United States and 
southern Canada. 

Unlike the Hessian fly it fec^ds and breeds upon wild grasses and 
is thus much more difficult to control. Prof. .\. J. Cook found 
the larvae in bolli 
barley anfl oats in 
Michigan, Prof. F. 
M. Webster reared 
an adult from bhic 
grass {l*oa pralen- 
sis), and Dr. J as. 
Fletcher records it 
as b r V e d i n g in 
Aqropijrmn, De.s- 
champsis, Elynius, 
Poa, and Setaria 
viridis in Canada. 

Ldfe History. — 
Like the Hessian 
fly the adult flies 
lay their eggs on 
fall wheat in Sep- 
tember and Octo- 
ber, and the young maggots when hatched work their way 
down into the stem, either cutting it off or causing it to discolor 
or die. The eggs are about one-fortietli of an inch long and 
of a, glistening whiti; color. 'i'lic larva; are a light greenish 
color, about ones-fourth of an inch long, tapering toward the 
terminal end while subcylindrical posteriorly, being quite elon- 
gate. The pupse are the same color as the larva), but more 
rounded, being only one-sixth of ;iri inch long, and reveal the 
legs and wing-cases of the imago ff)rming within them. The 




i;. '.}(\. Wlic.'il l)iilli-\\i)riii ( M ernmyza americana) : 
(I, rri;itur<! fly; h, l;irv;i; c, pupariiim; of, infoHted 
w^lOMt-st,f',m — all oniargod except d. (After 
Marlatt, U. S. Dopt. Agr.) 



134 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 





external case of the pupa, called the puparium, is merely the 
shrunken and hardened cast skin of the last larval stage, 
within which the insect transforms to the pupa. The fly is 
about one-fifth of an inch long. It is of a yellowish-white 
color with a black spot on the top of the head, three broad black 
stripes on the thorax, and three on the abdomen, which are often 
interrupted at the sutures, so that they form distinct spots. 

The eyes are a bright 
green. 

The winter is passed 
1)}' the larvffi in the 
young plants and in 
spring they transform 
to pupie and adult 
flies. These in turn 
deposit eggs in such a 
position that the mag- 
gots issuing from them 
may readily feed upon 
the succulent portions 
of tlie growing stalk. 
Numerous larva) thus 
sapping the life of the 
plant soon kill it out- 
right or cause the top 
and head to wither and 
die. The adults of this brood emerge in July and lay eggs 
on volunteer wheat and grasses, the maggots working in the 
same manner as in the fall and coming to maturity so that 
another l)rood of flies lays eggs for the fall brood on the newly 
planted wheat. 

Owing to the fact that this insect breeds also in grasses dur- 
ing late summer it is much more difficult to combat than were it 
confined to wheat as its food-plant, as is the Hessian fly. 

Remedies. — " If the grain is stacked or threshed and the 
straw stacked or burned," says Professor Webster, " it is clear that 




Fig. 97. — The American frit-fly (Oscinis variabilis 
Loew): a, larva or maggot; b, j)uparium; c, 
adult fly. (After Garman.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 135 

the number escaping would be greatly reduced," for, as the 
adults emerge soon after harvest, they would escape to deposit 
their eggs were the straw left in the fields, but "it is not likely 
that those in the centre of the stacks would be able to make 
their way out, and the threshing-machine would destroy many 
more. How much could be accomplished b}' late sowing of grain 
is uncertain, as the females are known to occur abundantly up to 
October. If plots of grain were sowed immediately after harvest 
in the vicinty of the stacks, many of the females could, no doubt, 
be induced to deposit their eggs therein, and these could be 
destroyed by plowing under." Burning of the stubble will also 
aid in keeping this pest under control. 

There are several undetermined species of flies belonging 
to the genus Oscinis, which have practically the same life history 
as the wheat stem-maggot and injure the wheat in the same 
manner. They very closely resemble the common house-fly in 
miniature, being about one-fourth as large. They will not need 
consideration by the practical farmer other than in applying 
methods of control as already given. One species of this genus, 
determined by Professor H. Garman as Oscinis variabilis Loew and 
christened the American Frit-fly, has been found common in 
Kentucky and Canada, l)ut in the larval stage is so nearly 
identical in appearance and habit with the stem-maggot that it 
can with difficulty be distinguished from it. 

That these pests do not do more injury is probably due, to a 
considerable extent, to the fact that large numbers of them are 
destroyed by a small hymenopterous parasite, known as CoBliniis 
meromyzce Forbes, which very commonly infests the larvae, and 
by other parasites and predaceous insects. 

Rarely will these pests do serious damage, but very often 
it is sufficient to merit consideration, and only a knowledge of 
their life history can give a key to their successful control. 



136 INSECT TKSTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



The Wheat Joint-worm * 

For the last sixty years iiic joiiit-wonn has l)een known as 
a serious pest of wheat throughout the wheat-growing I'cgion 
east of the Mississippi River, tiie damage varying from a 
sHght injury which is hardly noticeable, and which may escape 
observation for several years, to an almost total destruction of 
the crop. 

The adults appear in April, May, or early June, according to the 
latitude, and are small black, four-winged flies about one-eighth 
inch long, with the joints of tli(> legs and feel yellow. They look 

s o ni e t h i n g like 
small, winged black 
aiils (Fig. 99) and 
curiously enough 
belong to a family 
w hose members ai'e 
almost all paras'.tic 
on other Insects, so 
that before they had 
1) e e n thoi'oughly 
studied they were 
thought to be para- 
sites of the Hessian 
fly. The females 
lay their eggs in the stems, generally selecting the uppermost 
joints that have appeared at that time. " The .young worms 
develop rapidly, each in a little cavity within the straw. Often 
knots, swellings, and twistings occur in the stiaw at the point 
of infestation; again there is little sign of the insect's presence 
except a slight discoloration or a little deviation of the fibres 
and grooves of the straw fi'om their natural couise. When the 
infested section is split with a knife it is found lo be l)rittle and 

* Isosotna tritici Fitch. Family Chalcididce. See J. S. llouser, Bulletin 
22G, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta.; and F. M. Webster, Circular GU, Bureau of Ento- 
mology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 




Fir,. 9S. — (I. wheat-straw al'lVcli'il \>y juiiil-woriii ; h, 
.'uhilt ;is seen IVoin iilxivc. (Al'U-r Rik-y.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



137 



woody in character, and contains from 3 or 4 to 20 or more yel- 
lowish larvae, about one-eighth inch long when full-grown. These 
larvsB remain in the straw until the following spring, when they 
issue as adults and commence again the life cycle in the new crop. 
The damage is done by the worms cutting off the sap supply 
from the head, causing it to become shortened, containing 
comparatively few kernels, and such kernels as develop are apt 
to be small and shriveled from lack of nourishment. Also because 
of the brittleness of the straw high winds are apt to break much 
of it down." — Gossard. 

The presence of the pest is always indicated at threshing by 




Fig. 99. — Wheat straw-worm (Isosomn grande Riley): o, ventral view; b, side 
view of larva; c, antennae; d, mandible; e, anal segment, ventral view; /, 
adult female; g, fore-wing; h, hind-wing; i, aborted wing, (.\fter Riley.) 



short, hard bits of straw, containing the larvte, which arc carried 
out with the grain instead of going over in the straw. It has 
usually been considered necessaiy to separate and burn these, 
l)ut Professor F. M. Webster finds that the larvtc in them are 
probably killed in threshing, as he has been unable to rear 
adults of cither the joint-worm oi- lis pai'usites from such bits of 
straw. 

Coiilrol. — A rotation of the wlu^at crop is of })rimary impor- 
tance in the control of this pest, and whcic wheat is not planted 
on the same land and is sown as far from that of the previous 



138 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

year as possible there will be but little damage. It is obvious 
that the stubble should be plowed under where possible, or burned 
during the late fall or winter. Cut infested grain as low as pos- 
sible so as to remove the larva; in the straw. Where the stubble 
cannot be burned, break it down by harrowing in the spring and 
then collect with a hay rake and burn. Prepare the seed bed 
thoroughly and fertilize well, when injury is expected, so as to 




Fig. 100. — Swellings made by wheat joint-worms in straw — enlarged. (After 

Pettit.) 

ensure a strong growth and early ripening. Green manure 
containing infested straw should not ho scattered on land to be 
used for wheat, and all infested straw which has not been used 
up by April should be burned. 

The Wheat Straw-worm * 



" The Wheat Straw-worm," says Professor l'\ M.Webster/' sus- 
tains the same relation to winter-wheat culture west of the Miss- 
issippi River that the joint-worm does to the cultivation of this 
cereal east of this river. Both, when excessively abundant, 
occasion losses from slight to total. A wheat stem attacked 
by the joint- worm may produce grain of a more or less inferior 
quality and less of it; luit the spring attack of the wheat straw- 

* I.sim)ni(i (jriiridc Riley. Family ('lidlcidida'. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



139 



worm is fatal to the plant affected, as no grain at all is produced, 
and while the second generation of the same has a less disastrous 
effect in the field, it nevertheless reduces the grade and weight 
of the grain." Though the straw-woiiii occurs over much of 
the same territory in the East as the joint- worm, it is rarely so 
injurious. 

Life History and Description.* " There are two generations 
of the insect annually, the adults of the first generation differing 
considerably in appearance from those of the second. To the 
farmer they will all look like minute or large, shining black ants, 




Fig. lUL — Wheat straw-worm: adult of fall generation, much enlarged. 
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



with or without wings, their legs more or less banded with yellow, 
and having red eyes. Individuals of the first generation emerge 
in April from the outstanding straws and stubble. They are 
very small, most of them arc females, and many are wingless. 
The females deposit their eggs in the young wheat plants, the 
stems of which at this time extend but little above the sur- 
face of the ground. The egg is placed in or just below the 
embryonic wheat head and the larva or worm works within 

* From Circular 106, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., by F. M. 
Webster and Geo. I. Reeves. 



140 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



the stem, usually causing a slight enlargement. When the 
worm is full grown it will be found in the crown of the plant, 
having eaten out and totally destroyed the embryonic head, 
its body occupying the cavity thus formed. 

"The females which deposit these eggs, being small and fre- 
quently wingless, are in no way fitted for traveling long dis- 
tances. The larva or worm is of a very light straw color, indeed 
almost white, with brown jaws. These worms develop very 

rapidly and, as they feed 
on the most nutritious part 
of the plant, they become 
robust and larger than 
those found in the mature 
straw in late summer. In 
May the larvte become full 
grown and pass at once 
through a short pupal 
stage. The pupae are at 
first the same color as the 
larva^, but later change to 
a shining jet black. In 
a few days the fully devel- 
oped insects gnaw circular 
holes through the walls of 
the stem and make their 
way out. These adults are 
much larger and more robust than the individuals of the first 
generation and arc provided with fully developed, serviceable wings. 
That they make good use of their wings, and scatter themselves 
about over fields adjacent to their place of development, is shown 
by their occurrence in fields of grasses (in the stems of which 
they do not breed) situated considerable distances from wheat 
fields. In ovipositing, the females of this generation select 
the largest and most vigorous-growing stems in which to place 
their eggs. 

" The adults of the second generation deposit their eggs 




a 6 

Fig. 102. — The wheat straw-worm: 
method of oviposition of female of 
summer form: a, female inserting 
her eggs, b, section of wheat stem, 
showing egg; c, and ovipositor, d; 
c, egg, greatly magnified. (After 
Riley and Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



141 



from early May, in Texas, up to the middle of June, in northern 
Indiana, or about the time the wheat is heading. Their aim 
at this time is to place the eggs singly in the growing stem, 
just above the youngest 
and most succulent joints, 
which are not so covered 
by the enfolding leaf 
sheaths as to be inaccessi- 
ble to them. Thus it is 
that the stage of advance- 
ment in the growth of the 
wheat stem at the time of 
oviposition of the summer 
generation of females 
determines whether the 
larvte will he well upward 
in the straw, and there- 
fore removed after har- 
vest, or lower down and 
consequently left in the 
fiekl in the stubble. 

" The method of ovi- 
position and the point 
where the egg is usually 
formed is shown in Fig. 
103. The larva forms no 
gall, nor does it harden 
the stem within which it 
develops. There is nor- 
mally but one larva in each joint; but if several eggs have been 
placed between joints and produce larvse there will be one in the 
centre of the stem just above the joint and others in the walls just 
under the internal wall-covering or inner epidermis. These larvae 
in the walls of the straws do not, as a rule, kill the stem, but 
their effect is to curtail the yield by reducing the weight. The 
larvse develop rapidly and reach their full growth before the 




Fig. 103. — Wheat straw-worm, showing 
point wliere female of the spring form 
deposits the egg in yomig wheat in early 
spring. Enlarged showing position of egg 
at right. (After Wester, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



142 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

straw has hardened. By October, in the Middle West, though 
earlier in the South, they pass into the pupal stage, in which, as a 
rule, they remain until early spring, whereupon they develop to 
adults and gnaw their way out." In the Northwest, where both 
winter and spring wheat are grown, the injury is particularly 
severe to spring wheat, as the adults of the second generation from 
vvinter wheat oviposit upon it while it is still young and ruin it in 
much the same way as the first generation does on the winter 
wheat in spring. Volunteer plants which carry the pest over 
winter have the same effect in increasing the injury to spring 
wheat. 

Control. — -A rotation of crops which will eliminate the growing 
of wheat two years in succession on the same land is by all means 
the most successful and practi{'a])lo means of control. The adults 
of the first generation are very small and largely wingless; they are 
unable to migrate far, so that rotation is exceedingly efficacious, 
though it should be planned so that wheat is not planted next to 
stubble land, for the edge will become infested by the first genera- 
tion, and the second generation will then become distributed 
throughout the field. The liurning of stublile and outstanding 
straw will be advantageous whei-cvcr ])ra('ti<'al)le. Clean fallow- 
ing in early summer and tiu> abandonment of spring-wheat culture 
will reduce injury in the Northwest. 



Wheat Saw-flies * 

Several species of saw-fly larvae sometimes feed on the leaves 
and rarely on the heads of wheat, but seldom do serious injury. 
Dolerus arvetisis Say and Dolerus coUoris Say have both been 
reared upon wheat from Ohio and New Jersey, though both species 
occur throughout the United States and southern Canada east of 
the Rockies. The adult flies " are comparatively large, robust in- 
sects, of a dull black or bluish color, varied with yellow or reddish." 
" The larvae are quite uniform in color and general characteristics. 
They have twenty-two legs, are cylindrical, and generally of a 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 143 

uniform grayish or slaty color, dorsally and laterally, but nearly 
white ventrally." * 

The adults deposit their eggs in the spring, and larva; are 
to be found early in June. 

The only record found of the life history is that of D. collaris 
by Pi'ofessor F. M. Webster, who found that a larva collected 
on June 15, 1897, entered the ground in about ten days, and 
the first adult emerged January 11, 1898, though the adults 
usually appear later. 

The most common saw-fh- feeding upon wheat foliage is 




Fig. 104. — A wheat saw-fly (Dolcrus (irveriHia ^ny): female — -much enlarged. 
(After Riley and Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

Pachijueinatus extensicornis Norton. " The adult insects appear 
during the latter part of April and first of May, the males antedat- 
ing the f(>males several days. The eggs, when first laid, are of a 
light green color. They are inserted to the number of two to five, 
or more, together along the edges of the wheat-blades and just 
beneath the epidermis. Some fifteen or sixteen days elapse before 
hatching. The newly hatched larva is rather slender and elongate, 
tapering gradually from the head to the last segment; head yel- 
lowish, eyes black. Full growth is attained in about five weeks, 

* Family Tenthredinidce. Wheat and Grass Saw-flies. C. V. Riley and 
C. L. Marlatt, " Insect Life," Vol. IV, p. 169. 



144 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

the mature larva having a length of about four-fifths of an inch. 
The head is of a pale clay-yellow color, the eyes are black, and the 
color of the body is green or yellowish green. The larva is at once 
separated from the Dolerus larva by the possession of but seven 
pairs of abdominal feet." (R. and M., I.e.) When full-grown the 
larvae enter the earth and construct silken cocoons, in which they 




Fig. 105. — The grass saw-fly {Pachynematus extensicornis Norton) : a, a, eggs 
on wheat-blade; young larvae; c, full-grown larva; d, cocoon from 
which adult has emerged; e, f, adult insects — e, male; /, female, a and 
b, naturalsize; c-/, enlarged. (After Riley and Marlatt, U. S. D. Agr.) 



doubtless remain unchanged over winter, transforming to pupie 
shortly before the adults emerge the next spring. The form of the 
adults is well shown in the illustration. " The female is stout and 
in general light yellowish or ochraceous in color. The abdomen 
is for the most part dark l)rown or black, dorsally, except the pos- 
terior lateral margin and the extreme tip. The male is much more 
slender and elongate than the female, and is almost black in color, 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 145 

the tip of the abdomen being reddish and part of the legs whitish," 
This species has been taken on wheat in Illinois, Nebraska, Dela- 
ware, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. During 1886 
and 1887 it did considerable damage by cutting off the heads, — 
sometimes, as stated by a Maryland man, cutting fully one-half of 
them. No more recent damage has been recorded, and owing to 
the slight injury usually done no remedies have received a prac- 
tical test. Deep fall plowing might be of advantage by burying 
the larvae so deeply that the adults would be unable to escape. 

The Wheat -midge * 

History. — While the Hessian fly attacks the stalk of the 
wheat-plant, another species oif the same genus, known as the 
Wheat-midge, or " Red Weevil," often does very serious damage 
to the maturing head. It, too, is a foreigner, having first been 
noticed as injurious in Suffolk, England, in 1795, though prol>able 
references to its depredations date back as early as 1741. ''In 
' Ellis's Modern Husbandman ' for 1745 the attacks of the vast 
numbers of black flies (the ichneumon parasites) are noticed 
in the following quaint terms : ' After this we have a melancholy 
sight, for, as soon as the wheat had done blooming, vast numbers 
of black flies attacked the wheat-ears and blowed a little yellow 
maggot which ate up some of the kernels in other parts of them, 
and which caused multitudes of ears to miss of their fulness, acting 
in some measure like a sort of locust, till rain fell and washed them 
off; and though this evil has happened in other summers to the 
wheat in some degree, yet if the good providence of God had not 
hindered it they might have ruined all the crops of wheat in the 
nation.' (Hind's 'Essay on Insects and Diseases Injurious to 
Wheat Crops,' page 76)". It seems probable that it was first 
introduced into America near Quebec, where it " appears to have 
occurred " in 1819, and was first observed in the United States 

* Diplosis trilici. Family Cecidomyidce. See Bulletin No. 5, Vol. I 2d 
Ser., Ohio Ag. Exp. Sta, F. M. Webster. 



146 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

in northwestern Vermont in 1820. It did not become very 
destructive, however, until 182S, from which time until 1835 
is kept increasing in such numbers as to cause the abandonment 
of the wheat crops in some localities throughout northern New 
England. Serious damage was reported as due to this pest 
every few years until al^out 1860, being most severe in 1854, in 
which year Dr. Fitch estimated the loss in New York alone at 
$15,000,000, and in 1857, and 1858. Since then no widespread 
injury has occurred, though local outbi-eaks are frequent, and 




Fig. 106. — Wheat-midge {Diplosis tritici): a, female fly; b, male fly; c, larva 
from l)elo\v. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)' 



it has spread south to the Ciulf States and westward to Iowa, 
Minnesota, and Arkansas. 

Life History. — The adult flies are small, two-winged insects, 
about an eighth of an inch long, of a yellow or orange color. 
They appear about the middle of June and lay the eggs " in a 
small cavity at the summit of, and formed by a groove in, the 
outmost chaff covering the incipient kernel." They hatch in 
about a week, according to Dr. Fitch, and the maggots burrow 
into the forming kernels. The maggots are of a reddish color, 
and when an ear is badly infested give it a reddish tinge, on 
account of which the insect is often called the " red weevil." 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 147 

When full grown the larvae enter the ground and usually 
form cocoons, in which they pass the winter in the pupal stage? 
though they often hibernate without such protection. Though 
doubtless there is usually but one brood in a season, observations 
by Professor F. M. Webster and others seem to point to the fact 
that there sometimes are two broods, as adults have been oliserved 
from August into Xovember. 

Besides wheat, the wheat-midge also sometimes injures 
rye, barley, and oats. 

Remedies. — Plowing infested fields in the fall so deeply that 
the midges will be unable to reach the surface upon developing 
in the spring is ])y far the best means of conti-olling this pest, 
while l)urning the stubble previous to plowing, and a rotation 
of the crop, will also be of considerable aid. 



The English Grain-louse * 

The most common plant-louse affecting wheat and other small 
grains is a large green species which is always to be found on 
wheat plants, but which occasionally increases very rapidly, and 
clustering on the ripening heads sucks the juices so as to seriously 
injure the quality and weight of the wheat. 

In the North the first individuals are found on young wheat 
in April, though during open winters they may l)e found on the 
plants, and in the South they continue to reproduce during most 
of the winter in open seasons. The aphides feed upon the leaves 
until the grain commences to head, when they assemble on the 
heads among the ripening kernels. The females give birth to 
live young, bearing from 40 to 50 each, which become full grown 
in ten days to two weeks, and then reproduce, as is the usual 
method of reproduction with plant-lice (see page 442), so that they 

* Macrostphum gr a nana Bnckton. Family Aphididce. A nearly related 
species, Macrosiphum cerealis Kaltenbach, ha^ very similar habits, is commonly 
associated with the species, and has not been distinguished from it by most- 
writers. It may be recognized by lacking the blackish markings on the 
abdominal seq;ments. See Pergande, Bulletin 44, Bureau of Entomology, 
U. S. Dept. Agr. 



148 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



multiply with great rapiclit}-, and where so few were present as 
to be hardly noticeal)le, in a few weeks they will be swarming 
over the heads in myriads. As the small gi'ains ripen they migrate 
to various grasses and are not much in evidence during midsummer, 
but later migrate to volunteer oats and wheat, upon which they 
subsist until fall wheat is available. Owing to the cool weather 
of fall and the fact that but few individuals survive the attacks 
of their parasites during the summer, they rarely become abundant 
enough to do any damage to grains in the fall. So far as known, 

the}' hibernate over 
winter among the leaves 
of the growing plants, 
enough surviving both 
snow and cold to infest 
the crop the next spring. 
Whether true males and 
females produce eggs on 
the grain is unknown, for 
though they have been 
reai'ed under artificial 
conditions, they have 
never been observed in 
the field. Professor F. L. 
Washburn observed at 
least fourteen generations 
up to November 8, 1907, 
in southern Minnesota. 
As with other aphides, ]:>oth winged and wingless individuals 
occur throughout the season. The wingless individuals are 
about one-tenth inch long, with black antennie as long or longer 
than the body, are of a yellowish-green color, often slightly 
pruinose, and long black nectaries extend from either side of the 
abdomen. The winged indivitluals are about the same length, 
with a wing expanse of about three-eighths inch, with antenna,' 
ti third longer than the body, and are of the same general colora- 
tion except that lobes of the thorax are brown or blackish, and 




Fig. 107. — The German grain aphis (Macro- 
siphum cerealis Kah): a, winged migrant; 
b, nymph of same; c, wingless partheno- 
genetic female; d, same showing exit hole 
of parasite — enlarged. (After Riley, U. 
S. Dept. Agr.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



149 



the abdomen is marked with four or five transverse blackish 

spots in front of the nectaries. 

Like the other aphides affecting small grains, this species is 

held in check by parasitic insects, aided by predaceous insects and 

fungous diseases. Injury by the aphides is usually due to the 

parasites having been killed off, thus 
giving the aphides opportunity to 
multiply unchecked. Among the most 
abundant parasites are species of the 
genus Aphidius (family Braconidcp) , 




Fig. 108. — Grain aphides 
clustered on wheat head, 
greatly enlarged. (After 
Weed.) 




Fig. 109. — Wheat-louse parasite {Aphidius 
avenaphis Fitch), and parasitized louse 
from which it has issued. (Copied from 
J. B. Smith.) 



one of which is shown in Fig. 109, greatly enlarged. Cold, wet 
weather in spring greatly retards the development of these para- 
sites, so that the aphides are always more numerous in such 
seasons. It has also been observed that an outbreak is often 
preceded by several dry seasons, which may be due to the fact that 
such dry seasons check the development of fungous diseases which 
kill off large numbers of the aphides and which do not propagate 
in hot dry weather, Thus weather conditions are very intimately 



150 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

associated with the abundance of the pest. When the parasites 
become abundant they will often completely rid a field of the 
aphides within a few days. All of the common ladybird-beetles 
{Coccinellida), Syrphus-fiy larvie, and lace- winged fly larvae 
(Chrysopidce) are commonly found feeding upon the aphides. 
Control. — No practical remedy for this species is known nor 
are means of control easily suggested. The suppression of 
volunteer wheat and oats in early fall will prevent the multiplica- 
tion of the pest before fall-sown wheat is available, and the late 
sowing of wheat in the fall will reduce the numbers entering 
hibernation. A wise rotation and the thorough preparation 
of the seed-bed and liberal fertilization will be of value in avoid- 
ing injury in the same way as has been described for other pests 
of small grains. Fortunately this species rarely does very wide- 
spread injury and its parasites usually soon bring it under control. 

The Spring Grain-aphis or Green Bug * 

Though long known as a serious pest of small grains in Europe, 
this aphis has done widespread injury in this country only during 
the past ten years. Though it occurs throughout the territory 
north of latitude 41°, with the exception of the North Atlantic 
States, as far west as longitude 105°, the worst injury has been done 
in northern Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, though it has also been 
injurious in the Carolinas and Tennessee. 

The habits of the insect during the winter have not been suffi- 
ciently studied to speak authoritatively, but it seems probable 
that it normally passes the winter in the egg stage, the small shin- 
ing black eggs, one-fortieth inch long, being laid on the leaves in 
the late fall. In tlic South, however, it often continues to 
reproduce throughout the winter, and with a mild winter the 
numbers so multiply that unless checked by parasites serious 
injury is done b}^ late winter or early spring. Both wingless and 
winged forms occur throughout the year. The wingless female 
is from one-twenty-fifth to one-fourteenth inch long, yellowish- 
green, with a median line slightly darker, eyes and most of the 
* Toxoptera graminum Rond. Family Aphididce. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



151 



antennae black, of the shape shown in Fig. 112. The winged 
female is slightly larger, with a wing expanse of about one- 
quarter inch, and of the same general coloration, except that the 
head is brownish-yellow and the lobes of the thorax are blackish. 
The aphides hatching from the eggs are all females, which give 
birth to live young, no male forms occurring during the summer. 
During her hfe of slightly over a month a female will give birth to 
50 or 60 young, which commence to reproduce in the same manner 




Fig. 110. — The spring grain-aphis or "green bug" (Toxoptrea grnmimum): 
a, winged migrant; b, antenna of .same, a, much enlarged; h, highly 
magnified. (From Pergande, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



when about seven days old, so the numbers of the pest obviously 
increase with enormous rapidity, and with thousands of tiny beaks 
pumping out the sap the young grain plants soon succumb. The 
rate of reproduction and growth is, of course, much slower in 
colder weather, the above being the average for the growing season. 
Thus in an open winter the aphides will continue to multiply, and 
by February, in northern Texas, small spots of wheat and oats 
will show the effect of their work, by March the injury may become 
widespread and serious, and by the middle of April the crops may 
be ruined. As the aphides become excessively abundant and the 



152 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

food supply disappears, almost all develop wings, and immense 
clouds of the winged females are carried northward by the 
winds, so that an outbreak in early spring in the South leads to an 
infestation farther north, and excessive multiplication will again 
carry the pest still northward, progressing in that direction as it 
increases during the season, rather than being spread at one time. 
Thus in 1907 it became abundant in Oklahoma in April, in Kansas 



\ 
1 


1 


t> 


I 


( fl 





Fig. 111. — CJreen bugs on oat-seedling — enlarged. 



in May, and by July it was found in Minnesota, where it rarely 
occurs and does no damage. With the maturing of wheat and oats 
the aphides migrate to various grasses, being particularly fond of 
Kentucky blue-grass, and may subsist on corn, on which they 
may feed until oats and wheat are available in the fall. Oats are the 
favorite food, and outbreaks of the pest have always been worst 
where volunteer oats arc generally grown, the aphides increasing 
on them in the early fall and winter and latci- spreading to wheat. 
By October loth in Minnesota and by early November in Kansas 
the ti'ue winged males and wingless egg-laying females have been 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



153 



observed, but strangely enough they have only been secured in 
small numbers by being reared in the laboratory, and have not 
been observed in the field, so that although these females laid eggs 
freely on the leaves of grain, we do not know whether they are 
essential or not to the life history of the insect in the field, for 
while the eggs are being produced other females continue to give 
birth to live young until the cold of winter, and they have been 





Fig. 112. — Toxoplem graniinunr. it, newly horn, and h, adult wingless green 
bug, greatly enlarged. (After S. J. Hunter.) 

observed to reproduce with a daily mean temperature barely 
above freezing. 

Natural Control. — The natural control of this most destructive 
pest involves a most interesting relationship between temperature 
and the development of the parasites which check its development. 
" The ' green bug ' in normal years — that is, when its breeding 
begins in spring — is effectively held in check by its natural ene- 
mies, and notably by a minute, black wasp-like insect, Lysiphlebus 
testacei pes Cress. (Fig. 113), that deposits eggs singly in the 'green 



154 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

bugs,' the grubs hatching from the eggs feeding internally on the 
bug and destroying it (Figs. 115, 116). Other natural enemies are 
the larvae of certain predaceous flies, and the larvae and adults of 
lady-beetles. The little wasp-like parasite first mentioned, how- 
ever, is the one that keeps the ' green bug ' in control in normal 
years, and in years when the latter is most abundant finally over- 
comes it, as was the case in 1907 in Kansas, North Carolina, and 
other States in the more northern part of the range of the pest." 



Fig. 113. — Lysiphlebus testace i pes Cress., adnli female and antenna of male — 
greatly enlarged. (After Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

"Unfortunately this parasitic wasp — as with the other bene- 
ficial insects — is active only while the temperature is above 56° F., 
or at least 10° above that at which the ' gi'e(>n bug ' l>reeds freely; 
and herein is the whole secret of the irregulai- disastrous out)>reaks 
of the ' green bug ' in grain fields. As accounting foi- the out- 
break in the year 1907, the ' green bug ' had had a whole winter 
and the following late spring in which to breed and multiply un- 
molested, and it accomplished its principal damage, as in Texas 
and southern Oklahoma, before the weather was warm enough 
for the parasite to increase sufficiently to ovej'come it." 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SMALL GRAINS 



155 



" As further illustrative of the important bearing of weather 
conditions, it is found that in the case of the three important out- 
breaks of this insect, namely, for the years 189.0, 1901, and 1907, 
the temperature for the first five months of each of these years, 
including the latter part of the winter and spring, was above the 
normal for the winter months and below 
the normal for the spring months; in 
other words, warm winters and cold, late 
springs." 

" The little parasitic wasp which is so 
useful in the control of this pest is native 
to this country, widely distributed, and 
every year does its work with the ' green 
bug ' and with other aphides. It is 
always present in grain fields, as shown by 
its appearance every year, to war on these 
pests whenever the weather conditions 



Fig. 115.— Dead "green 
bugs," showing hole 
from wliich the matu- 
red parasite of Lijaiph- 
lebus emerges. The 
top figure shows the 
lid still attached, but 
pushed back ; the bot- 
tom figure shows the 
parasite emerging. 
Enlarged, (After 
Webster, U. S. Dept. 
Agr.) 





Fig. 114. — Lysiphlebits parasite in act of depositing 
eggs in the body of a grain-aphis — much enlarged. 
(After Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



make its breeding and multiplication possible, and its rate of breed- 
ing is so rapid (there being a generation about every ten days) that 
with a week or two of favorable weather it gains control over its 
host insects and destroys them." * Extensive experiments were 
conducted in Kansas in 1907 in importing these parasites from 

* From F. M. Webster, Circular 93, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. 
Agr. See also Bulletin of the University of Kansas, Vol. IX, No. 2, by 
S. J. Hunter, The Green Bug and Its Natural Enemies. 



156 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

farther south before they had become abundant in Kansas fields 
so as to hasten their control of the aphides, but further experi- 
ments will be necessary before it can be determined whether such 
a method of colonizing the parasites is practically effective or not. 
Control. — Most important of all methods of control is the aban- 
donment of the growing of volunteer oats and the destruction of 
all volunteer oats and wheat in the early fall. Universal experi- 




FiG. 116.— Parasitized green hugs — enlarged. (From photograph, after 

S. J. Hunter.) 

ence throughout the injured area shows that relatively little injury 
occurs where volunteer oats are not grown. 

Where small spots of grain have been injured by the pest in late 
winter, which is the way an outbreak usually begins in southern 
localities, the aphides on these small spots may ])e killed by spray- 
ing with 10 per cent kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil soap, 5 pounds 
to a barrel of water, by covering the spots with straw and burning, 
or by plowing under the infested spots. Were this generally done 
before the aphides commence to multiply rapidly, it is entirely 
possible that widespread injury might be averted. 



CHAPTER IX. 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 



The Western Corn Root-worm * 

Throughout the corn States of the northern Mississippi Val- 
ley, wherever corn is grown upon the same land it is subject to 
serious injury by the Western Corn Root-worm, so called because 
it first became injuri- 
ous in Missouri and 
Kansas and graduall}- 
spread eastward to 
Ohio, though not in- 
jurious south of the 
Ohio River. 

Though the life 
history of the insect 
has not been entirely 
determined, the fol- 
lowing summarizes 
it as observed by 
Professors S. A, 

Forbes and F. M. Webster in Illinois and Indiana. The eggs 
are laid in the early fall, within a few inches of the base of the stalk, 
and just beneath the surface of the soil. The egg is a dirty white 
color, oval in shape, and about one-fiftieth inch long. The winter is 
passed in the egg stage, differing from most nearly related beetles in 
this, and the eggs hatch in the spring or early summer. At first 
the larvse eat the small roots entire, but later burrow under the 
outer layers of the larger roots, causing the stalks on rich loam to 

* Diabrotica longicornis Say. Family Chrysomelidee . 

157 




Fig. 117. — The western corn root -worm: a, 
beetle; b, larva; c, enlarged leg of same; d, 
pupa — all enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. 
D. Agr.) 



158 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

be easily blown over, or dwarfing the plant on poorer land so that 
it produces but small ears. The full-grown larva is nearly white 
with a brown head, a little less than one-tenth inch long by about 
one-tenth inch in diameter. Three pairs of short legs are found 
on the thorax, but otherwise the body appears perfectly smooth 
to the eye, though finely wrinkled. Before pupation the color 
])ecomes slightly darker and the body shortens. Leaving the 
roots, the larvae then form small oval cells in the soil and in them 
transform to pupa% from which the adult beetles emerge in a 
short time. The beetles appear from the middle of July on 
through August, about two mor ths being required for development 
after hatching from the egg. The beetles are of a greenish or 
greenish-yellow color, about one-quarter inch long, and resemble 
the common striped cucumber-beetle (page 379) in form. They 
are to be found in the corn-fields feeding upon pollen and silk 
until the latter becomes dry, and lay their eggs during August 
and September. The beetles are often found feeding upon various 
weeds, clover, beans, cucumber and squash vines, and the blossoms 
of thistle, sunflower and golden rod. 

Control. — As the larvae feed only on corn, if the corn-field be 
planted to some other crop, starvation results, and a simple rota- 
tion in which corn is not allowed on the same land for over two 
years in succession usually prevents injury, though a field in which 
injury has occurred should be planted to some other crop at once. 
It is imprudent to plant corn on fields in which the beetle has been 
observed feeding in large numbers on clover and weeds during the 
late fall of the previous year. The liberal use of manure and fer- 
tilizers, and thorough cultivation will, of course, be of service in 
enabling the plants to withstand attack. 

The Southern Corn Root-worm * 

Closely related to the last species, but with somewhat different 
habits, the Southern Corn Root-worm is frequently injurious to 
corn from Maryland and southern Ohio southward. 

* Diabrotica \2-punctnta Oliv. Family Chrysomelidoe. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 



159 



The adult beetle is of a bright green marked with twelve black 
spots, which have given it the name of 12-Spotted Cucumber- 
beetle to distinguish it from the Striped Cucumber-beetle (page 379) , 
with which it is often associated feeding on cucurbs. It is some- 
what larger and more robust, than D. longicornis, and is almost 
omnivorous in its food habits, feeding upon the foliage and flowers 
of a long list of forage and garden crops, to which it often does 




Fig. 118. — The southern corn root-worni: a, egg; b, larva; c, work of larva 
at base of cornstalk; d, pupa; c, beetle — all much enlarged except c. 
(After Riley.) 

considerable damage. Beans arc frequently injured in much the 
same way as corn and the roots of melons and other cucurbs are 
often so riddled by the larvae as to kill the plants. 

Injury to corn is done by the larvtc in the spring, when they feed 
upon the roots while the corn is but a few inches high, bore into the 
crown, and boring into the base of the stalk through the young 
leaves eat out the " bud." The latter injury often seems to be 
more serious to corn than the injury to the roots, and has given 
the insect the common local name of " bud worm," Avhich is 
unfortunately applied to several other insects which do similar 



160 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

injury. Larvae have been found attacking wheat, rye, millet and 
Johnson grass in a similar way, the beetles seeming to be attracted 
to fields containhig Johnson grass l)efore the corn appears, thus 
injuring such grassy fields more scv(>r('ly. Injury to corn seems to 
be worse on low, damp spots. 

Life History. — The beetles hil)ernate over winter and are 
among the first insects to appear in early spring, appearing by the 
middle of March in the Southern States. Eggs are laid during April 
in the Gulf States and from late April to early June in Kentucky 
and the District of Columbia. The egg is dull yellow, oval, and 
about one-fortieth inch long. The eggs are laid singly just beneath 
the surface of the soil and hatch in from seven to ten days, those 
laid early in the season re(iuiring considerably longer. The 
larvse become full grown and pupate about a month later, the 
adult beetles of the first generation appearing during May and 
early June in the Gulf States and in late June and early July in the 
District of Columbia and Kentucky. Thus the complete life cycle 
requires from six to nine weeks in the spring. Eggs are laid by the 
first generation of beetles, the larvse being found on the roots of 
corn from midsummer until fall, when the second generation of 
beetles is found in October and Xoveml^er in Kentucky. In the 
Gulf States there are undoubtedly three complete generations, 
though they have not been carefully followed.* The beetles 
assemble on clover and alfalfa in the late fall, upon which they feed 
until winter sets in, and often come out and feed during warm 
spells in Januar}- antl P'ebruary in the Southern States. 

Control. — Although rotation of crops will not be as effective in 
the control of this species as in the case of D. longicornis, it will 
undoubtedly be found of value to avoid planting corn in succession 
where injur}- is probable. B}- planting late after the beetles have 
laid their eggs, injuiy has been avoided in Georgia. Liberal seed- 
ing, using ten grains of seed per hill, will give a sufl^icient stand 
free from attack, so that b}- thinning a good stand may be secured. 

* In the Northern States, where this species is not a pest of com, but is 
common on cncurhs and garden phints, there is probably but a single genera- 
tion with a life history very similar to that of the striped cucumber-beetle, 
seepage 370, 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 161 

Fields which are well infested with Johnson grass, or other thick- 
stemmed grasses, should ))e avoided, for as already indicated the 
beetles will be attracted to them before the corn is up. Both 
on account of the feeding habits of the larvae and the migrator}' 
habits of the beetles no insecticide treatment commends itself as 
practicable. 

The Corn-root Webworm * 

Injury. — When young corn-plants are seen to stop growing, 
become deformed, and to die off in such numbers as to frequently 
necessitate replanting, upon examination of the roots the injur}- 
will sometimes be found to be due to the work of a small caterpillar. 
Two or three, very often five or six, and sometimes as many as 
eight or nine will be found at the Ijasc^ of a plant about an inch 
below the surface of the soil, and not over 4 to G inches from 
the stalk, usually being in close proximity to it. If each larva is 
covered with a fine, loose web, to which cling particles of earth 
forming a sort of case, it is prol)aljly a corn-root webworm. 

Where the webworms are present in any numbei' they will 
often necessitate a second, third, or sometimes a fourth 
planting, making the corn very late and involving considerable 
expense. The worms bore into the young stalks just above the 
ground, frequentl}' cutting them off entirely. Later on the 
larger stalks are gouged out at or slightly above the surface of 
the ground, and the larvse burrow into the folded leaves, which 
when they unfold have several transverse rows of three to five 
holes. On account of this habit these insects are sometimes 
known as " budworms." Strong plants will often make a new 
start and survive the injury, but remain much behind those not 
attacked, while most of the weaker plants will decay and rot off. 

The Moth. — As one walks through pasture or grass land, 
many little white and yellowish moths are seen flying about 
on all sides, but c^uickly disappear as they alight on the grass. 
If a single individual be watched more closely, it will be noticed 
that in alighting upon a blade of grass it quickly rolls its wings 
■ - * Crambus caliginosellus Clem. F sunily CrambidcB. 



162 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



very tightly around its body, and hugs up close to the grass 
so that it is hardly distinguishable from it. Projecting from the 
head in front is what appears to be a long beak or snout, on 

account of which 
these moths are 
often known as 
"snout-moths," but 
which really con- 
sists of the palpi 
or feelers. The 
" grass-moths," as 
they are sometimes 
called, belong to the 
genus Crambus and 
include several 



common species, 
which are marked 
with silver stripes 
and ])ands, as well 
as golden lines and 
markings, so that 
they often present 
a very handsome 
appearance. 

Life History. — 
These are the pa- 
rents of the web- 
worms which do so 
much injury to the 
young corn-roots, 
the principal depre- 
dators upon corn 
belonging to the 
their eggs in grass 




Fig. 119. — The corn-root web-worm (Crambun 
caliginosellus): a, larva; b, pupa; c, moth; d, 
segment of hirva; e, parasite, (.\fter Johnson.) 

species Crambus caliginosellus. The)' lay 

land in Ma}' or early June, dropping them on the surface 

among the rubbish or vegetation, or attaching them to the 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 1G3 

grass. They are oval in form and of a yellowish color, each 
being marked with regularly placed ridges. About two hundred 
eggs are laid by each female. In from six to ten days the 
eggs hatch. The young larvae soon form their loose silken webs 
or tubes at or a little below the surface of the soil, burrowing 
among the roots, and feeding upon the stalk and outer leaves, 
or killing the plant by attacking the crown. The larvae vary 
considerably in color, from a yellowish white, through pink, 
to a reddish or brownish shade, and are studded with small 
tubercles, each bearing a tuft of bristly hairs. The larvae become 
full grown in from five to seven weeks and are then from one- 
half to three-fourths of an inch long. During the latter part of 
July they form cocoons, sometimes in the larval tubes, in which 
they pass the pupal stage and from which the moths emerge 
some twelve to fifteen days later. Eggs are laid for another 
brood in grass lands during August and September, the larvae 
hatching in September and October and becoming partly grown 
before winter. They hibernate in their webs over winter, and as 
soon as the grass commences its growth in the spring they are 
to be found feeding upon it, becoming full grown early in May. 
Preventive. — As the natural food of these insects is grass, it 
is not surprising that corn planted on sod land should be worst 
injured; and though the injur}' done the grass may not have been 
noticeable, when the available food is so greatly diminished by 
substituting for grass the comparatively few hills of corn the 
injury becomes much more serious and apparent. Though the 
planting of corn on sod land is a most common practice, injury 
by this and many other insect pests of corn — most of whose 
native food is grass — might be avoided bj^ planting any other 
crop than a grain, such as potatoes. Otherwise plowing late in 
the fall and harrowing so as to expose the larvae to the weather, 
or plowing so deeply that they will be buried so that they cannot 
regain the surface, will do much to prevent injury the next season. 
Inasmuch as the moth will not lay her eggs upon plowed land, 
if the land be plowed early she will l)e driven to other fields; 
but the exact time of oviposition varies for different latitudes. 



164 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Generous fertilization will aid the plants in overcoming 
injury very considerably. Dr. J. B. Smith advises " the applica- 
tion of all the necessary potash in the form of kainit, put on as 
a top-dressing after the field is prepared for planting," and says: 
"Fall plowing and kainit as a top-dressing in spring will, I feel 
convinced, destroy by all odds the greater proportion of the web- 
worms that infest the sod, and would also destroy or lessen many 
other pests which trouble corn during the early part of its life." 

The Corn-root Aphis * 

Where patches of corn become dwarfed, the leaves becoming 
yellow and red, with a general lack of vigor, the grower may well 
be suspicious of the presence of the Corn-root aphis. These 
little aphides, which cluster on the roots of corn, are a bluish- 
green color, with a white waxy bloom, and of the form shown in 
Fig. 120. Two short, slender tubes project from the posterior 
part of the abdomen which are commonly called honey-tubes, 
because they were formerly supposed to give out the honey-dew, 
which is so relished b}^. the ants which tend the aphides to secure 
it. The winged female has a black head and brownish-black 
thorax, with pale green abdomen bearing three of four blackish 
marginal spots and small dark specks over the surface. The 
antennae are dark and the legs blackish. 

The corn-root aphis occurs throughout the principal corn- 
growing States, but has been most destructive where corn is 
most extensively grown and is often planted year after year 
on the same land. Dr. Forbes, to whom we are indebted for 
most of our knowledge of this pest,t has observed fields of corn 
in Illinois planted in corn for the second season totally ruined 
by the root-aphis. Broom-corn and sorghum are the only other 
cultivated crops which have been injured, but the list of food 
plants includes smartweed, purslane, ragweed, foxtail, and crab- 

* Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes. Family Aphididoe. 

t S. A. Forbes, 17th, 18th, and 25th Reports of the State Entomologist 
of Illinois; Bulletin 60, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 29; 
Bulletins 104 and 130, Illinois Agr. Exp. Sta. See also J. J. Daxas, Bulletin 
12, Part VHI, Technical Series, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., 
and F. M. Webster, Circular 86, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 



165 



grasses, and many other weeds and grasses which spring up in 
the corn-field. In South Carohna Professor A. F. Conradi has 
found it injuring cotton. 

If the nests of the small brown ant * so common in corn-fields 
infested with the root-aphis, be broken open during the winter, 
many of the little black aphis eggs, which have been carefully 
stored by the ants, will be found. They are a glossy black color, 




Fig. 120. — The com root-aphis {Aphis maidiradicis Forbes): at left, ovip- 
arous female; a, hind tibia, showing sensoria; at right, male; a, antenna 
— much enlarged. (After Forbes.) 



oval in shape, and will sometimes be found in small piles in 

the chambers of the ants' nests. On warm days the ants bring 

them up to the warmer surface soil and in cold weather carry 

them far down into the unfrozen earth. With the appearance 

of young smartweed and foxtail-grass in April and May the eggs 

commence to hatch. The ants at once lay bare the roots of 

these plants and carry their young w^ards to them, where large 

colonies soon become established. If the field is not planted in 

* Lasius niger Linn. var. amcricanus Emery. See Forbes, Bulletin 131, 
Illinois Agr. Exp. Sta. 



166 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

corn, the lice will feed later upon the roots of pigeon-grass or 
purslane. In early May the second generation of lice commence 






4 6 

Fig. 121. — ^The com-root aphis (Aphis 7naidi-radicis Forhes): 1, wingless 
vivaparous female; a, apex of abdomen; 2, antenna of same; 3, pupa; 
4, winged vivaparous female; 5, antenna of same. (After Forbes.) 



to appear, among them being both wingless and winged forms. 
This brood and all of these during the summer are produced by 
females known as agamic females, which give birth to live young 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 



167 



without mating with a male. As soon as corn plants are available 
the ants again transfer the aphides to their roots, and carry any 
winged aphides which may have spread over the field down on 
to the roots of the corn. ^ All through the summer the ants 
attend the lice, burrowing around the roots of the corn, and 
carrying them from plant to plant, in return for which the 
aphides give off the sweet honey-dew, when stroked by the ants' 
antennae, upon which the ants feed. During the summer the 
aphides continue to reproduce with extreme rapidity, an aphid 
maturing and giving birth to young about eight days after it is born, 




Fig. 122. — Grass root-louse {Schizoneura panicola); winged vivaparous 
female, a, antenna. (After Forbes.) 



each generation taking about sixteen days and there being about 
twelve generations during the season. Both winged and wingless 
agamic females occur throughout the summer, but late in Sep- 
tember and in October wingless forms which develop into true 
males and females are produced. These mate and the females 
lay eggs during October, most of them being carried by the ants 
to their nests, where the eggs are laid. 

Control. — Owing to the fact that the aphides do not migrate 
until the second generation, a rotation of crops will be of great 
service in checking their injuries, as corn planted on uninfested 
land will not be attacked until it has been able to secure a good 
start, and if well fertilized will l)e able to successfully withstand 



168 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 







^ 

I'iG. 123.— -The cuni-field ant {Lasius niger americanus): 1, worker; 2, larva; 
3, winged male; 4, pupa; 5, winged female; 6, female with wings re- 
moved. (After Forbes.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 169 

whatever injury may occur. Rarely is corn on land not in corn 
the previous year seriously injured, and where infestation has 
not been serious throughout a community, it may usually be 
grown two years in succession with safety. 

The proper fertilization of plants affected with root insects 
is always of great importance, enabling the plant to make a crop 
in spite of them if the attack is not too severe. Professor F. M. 
Webster observes that land which has been fertilized with barn- 
yard manure is much less injured by this insect than that where 
commercial fertilizers are used. 

As the ants not only spread the pest during spring and summer, 
but house the eggs in their nests over winter, any means for 
destroying their nests will be of importance in controlling the 
aphides. Where it is practicable, deep plowing in late fall and 
winter, with thorough harrowing, will break up the nests, and 
land so treated has shown decidedly less injury the next season. 
Similarly plowing deeply and harrowing several times in spring 
not only breaks up the ants' nests, but destroys the weeds and 
grasses upon which the aphides feed before corn is up, and also 
furnishes the best possible seed-bed and soil conditions. This 
should be particularly thorough in low spots where weeds are 
thickest and where the aphides appear first. Such spring cultiva- 
tion has been demonstrated as very effective in the control of 
the pest. In recent years Professor S. A. Forbes has conducted 
experiments in Illinois which seem to show that dipping the seed 
in a repellant such as a lemon oil will render it obnoxious to the 
ants, and thus protect the hill. This has not proven successful, 
however, when heavy rains followed planting and washed off 
the repellant. Lemon oil was used by adding 1 gallon of wood 
alcohol to 1 pint of oil of lemon, of which 3 fluid ounces (6 table- 
spoonfuls) were stirred into each gallon of seed used, being sure 
that all the seeds were well coated. Such a treatment cost about 
ten cents per acre and resulted in reducing the number of 
aphides 89 per cent and the number of ants 79 per cent, so that 
it may well be given a trial, but the chief reliance should be placed 
upon rotation and early cultivation. 



170 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Corn Leaf-aphis * 

Although the corn leaf-aphis is not often very seriously 
injurious to corn, in Texas and other Southern States it frequently 
becomes so abundant on sorghum and corn, and in winter on 
barley, as to do considerable injury. This species is also of interest 
in that it appears on corn foliage in midsummer at the time when 
the numbers of the root-aphis commence to decrease on the roots, 



Fig. 124. — The corn leaf-aphis (Aphis maidis Fitch): winged female — much 
enlarged. (After Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

and it was for many years thought to be the same species. Care- 
ful rearing experiments made under the direction of Dr. S. A. 
Forbes have failed to show any connection between the root- 
aphis and leaf-aphis, the aphides from the roots being unable to 
establish themselves on the leaves and those on the leaves never 
migrating to the roots. f 

Dr. Forbes describes the species in his twenty-third report 
as follows: " In the latter part of the summer this bluish-green 
plant-louse may occasionally be found on the younger leaves, 

* Aphis maidis Fitch. Family Aphididoe. See Webster and Davis, 
I.e., p. 164. 

t S. A. Forbes, 13th, 16th, 18th, and 23d Reports of the State Entomologist 
of Illinois. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 



171 



the tassel, and the upper part of stalks of corn, and more abun- 
dantly and frequently on broom-corn and sorghum. Multiply- 
ing in place by the birth of living young, which do not wander 
from their place of origin, these leaf-lice may become abundant 
enough to kill the leaves and to some extent to effect the health 
of the plant. The insect is, however, rarely seriously injurious 
to corn, but there is some evidence, . . . that it may prevent the 
fertilization of the kernel by sucking the sap from the silk and 
killing it before it has performed its function. Heavily infested 
corn leaves turn yellow or red, and may shrivel and die, partic- 
ularly if the weather be dry at the 
time. Broom-corn is considerably 
damaged by a reddened discoloration 
of the brush, due to a bacterial affec- 
tion following upon the plant-louse 
punctures. 

" The wingless form of this aphis 
is about 2 mm. (one-twelfth inch) 
long and half as wide at the widest 
part, the body being somewhat ovate 
in outline. The general color is pale 
green, with the cauda, cornicles and 
the greater part of the rostrum, 
antennae and legs black. The head 
is marked wuth two longitudinal 

dark bands, and the abdomen with a row of black spots 
on each side and a black patch about the base of the cornicles. 
The latter are swollen in the middle, making the outlines convex. 
. . . The winged form is somewhat different in color, the head 
being black and the thorax chiefly black above. The abdomen 
is pale green, bluish at the sides, with two transverse black bands 
preceding the cauda, and the segments behind it edged with dark." 
These differences between this and the root aphis are shown in 
the accompanying figures. "Aphis maidis has been reported 
at various times as a corn insect from New York to Texas, 
Minnesota and California. The species makes its appearance 




Fig. 125. — The wingless 
female of the corn leaf- 
aphis — much enlarged. 
(After Webster, U.S. Dept. 
Agr.) 



172 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

in midsumjiier, our earliest date (Illinois) being July 9, when 
specimens were found on young leaves of corn. We have no 
record whatever to show whence it comes or where it lives pre- 
ceding this time. Having once commenced to breed on the food 
plants mentioned, it continues there until freezing weather over- 
takes it, when, with the death of its food plants, it gradually 
disappears, leaving neither eggs nor hibernating adults on or 
about these plants, and passing the winter we do not know how 
or where." Its occurrence on barley in Texas in January may 
throw some light upon its wintering habits in the South. " The 
latest to develop in the field largely acquire wings, and as the sap 
supply in the plant diminishes they fly away. Wingless females, 
on the other hand, perish on the spot. Indications are thus 
very strong that this is a migrating species whose second ^ood 
plant is thus far unknown." 

No experiments in the practical treatment of this pest seem 
to have been recorded. 

The Larger Corn Stalk-borer * 

Throughout the South from Maryland to Louisiana and west- 
ward to Kansas more or less serious injury is done by large white, 
brown-spotted caterpillars which bore into the stalks. In spring 
the young caterpillars bore into the heart of the young plant and 
like other insects with similar habits (seepage 161) are known as 
" bud worms." Later the hollowing out of the stalk so weakens 
the plant that it is readily broken over by the wind. Consequently 
a loss of from 25 to 50 per cent of the crop not infrequently results 
where the pest is abundant. 

Life History. — When the caterpillars become full grown in the 
fall they burrow down into the tap-root and there pass the winter 
in a small cavity at or near the surface of the ground. About the 
time the land is being prepared for corn, from March 15 to April 30, 
depending on the locality, the larva changes into a reddish-brown 
pupa, from which the moth emerges in ten days or more. The 

* Diatraea zeacolella Dyar. Family Crambidce. See Circular 139, Bureau 
of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 



173 



moth is a brownish-yellow color with wings expanding 1| inches, 
the hind-wings being darker and bearing faint markings (Fig. 128). 
The eggs are laid at dusk upon the under surface of the leaves of 
the young corn, and hatch 
in from seven to ten days. 
The eggs are flat, scale- 
like, and placed in rows 
of from two to twenty- 
five, slightly overlapping 
each other. They are 
Vioo inch long, by two 
thirds as wide, at first a 
creamy-white, but grad- 
ually becoming a reddish 
brown. The young larva 
bores into the stalk, often 
destroying the " bud," 
and then at or near the 
ground, where it burrows 
upward in the pith, 
seldom damaging the 
stalk above the third 
joint. As the borers 
grow they become quite 
active and frequently 
leave and re-enter the 
stalk, thus making sev- 
eral holes. The caterpil- 
lars become full grown 
in twenty to thirty 
days, and are about one inch long, dirty-white, thickly covered 
with dark spots, each of which bears a short, dark bristle. 
The mature caterpillar bores outward to the surface of the stalk, 
making a hole for the escape of the adult moth, which it covers 
with silk, and then transforms to a pupa in its burrow. This 
occurs during July, and the moths of the second generation emerge 




Fig. 126. — Work of the larger corn stalk-borer: 
a, general appearance of stalk infested Ijy 
the early generation of borers; b, same 
cut open to show pupa and larval burrow. 
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



174 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

in seven to ten days. The second l)rood of larvae feed on the old 




/ 3 

Fig. 127. — a, 6, c, varieties of the larva of the larger corn stalk-borer; d, 
third thoracic segment; e, eighth abdominal segment; /, abdominal 
segment from side; 9, same from above — enlarged. (After Howard, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

stalks, tunneling them between the second joint and the ground, 

and become full grown about 
harvest time when they go 
into winter quarters in the 
root as above described. 

Control. — It has been 
observed that late planted 
corn is much less injured 
than that planted early, 
but as it is more seriously 
injured by some other pests, 
late planting may not be 
advisable. 

• Where corn has been 
seriously injured, the- old 
stalks or ])utts should be 
dragged off the field and 

burned late in the full, thus destroying the over-wintering borers. 




Fig. 128. — The larger corn stalk-borer. 
a, female; b, wings of male; r, pnpa 
— all somewhat enlarged. (After 
Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 175 

When corn is stripped for fodder, the stalks left standing and the 
land sown in small grain, the most favorable conditions are 
allowed the borers for safely passing the winter and developing 
into moths which will fly to new fields in the spring. 

A simple rotation of crops will also lessen injury considerably, 
as Dr. L. 0. Howard has observed that where fields which had 
been in corn the previous year were damaged 25 per cent, those 
planted on sod land were damaged but 10 per cent, though reason- 
ably close to land which had been in corn. 

Bill-bugs * 

Throughout the South and often in the more Northern States, 
Canada, and the West the bill-bugs sometimes become serious 
enemies of young corn-plants. They are called " bill-bugs " on 
account of the prolongation of the head, termed a bill or snout, 
peculiar to all the weevils or " snout-beetles," by means of which 
they are enabled to drill holes in the corn-stalks. Several species 
belonging to the genus Sphenophorus are commonly injurious to 
corn. One of these, S. parvulus Gyll., also attacks small grains 
and timothy, and is therefore known as the Grain Sphenophorus. 
Another species, S. obscurus Boisd., does considerable injury to 
sugar-cane in Hawaii. The adult beetles are from one-fourth to 
three-fourths of an inch long, of the form shown in the illustration^ 
and are of a brown or black color, marked with darker longitudinal 
ridges on the wing-covers. The larva is a thick fleshy white 
grub, from one-fourth to five-eighths of an inch long, with a 
brown head and cervical shield on the first segment, and footless. 

Life History. — The life histories of the different species are 
but partially known. 

S. parvulus hibernates over winter as a beetle, appearing in 
March and April. The female punctures the stalk of wheat or 
timothy — oats and barley are also sometimes attacked — a little 
above the roots, and deposits her egg in the cavity. This is done 
in May or June or even up to July 1st. The larvae are to be found 

* Species of Sphenophorus. Family Calandridce. See S. A. Forbes, 
23d Report of the State Entomologist of Illinois. 



176 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



during July, becoming full grown and pupating during the latter 
part of that month. The larvae will eat out quite a cavity in the 
interior of the stalk or bulb, and then attack the roots, thus often 
killing a whole clump or stool of small grain or timothy. The 
pupal stage is passed in a small cell in the earth and lasts from two 




Fig. 129. — Sphenophoru.s orhreiin, larva, adult, and work in roots of Scirpus. 
(AftcM- F. M. Webster, "Insect Life.") 



to three week.s, adult beetles emerging from the middle of August 
to the first of October. 

One of the most injurious species to corn is S. ochreus Lee. 
The life history is much the same as that of S. parvulus, though 
eggs have been found as late as July 30th. The natural food-plant 
of this species, however, is the common club-rush {Scirpus jiuvia- 
tilis), the roots of which consist of bulbs connected by smaller 
slender roots. The eggs are deposited in or about the roots of this 
rush, never having been found on corn. The bulbs of the rush are 
very hai'tl and oftentimes as large as hens' eggs. In them the 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 



177 



larvae burrow, becoming full grown and transforming to pupae, 
from which the adult beetles appear in August and September. 
When the rush becomes too hard for the beetles they often attack 
a common reed {Phragmites communis), piercing and splitting 



m JHIlf 




Fig. 130. — Sections of sugar-cane showing work of Sphenophorus obscurus. 
a, larva; b, pupa; c, probable points of oviposition. (After Riley and 
Howard, " Insect Life.") 

lengthwise the unfolded terminal leaves, and eating out the suc- 
culent portions within. The injury to corn is done by the beetles 
while the corn is still young, feeding upon it in the same manner 
as do the other species. " Standing with the head downward and 
the feet embracing the lower part of the stalk," says Dr. Forbes, 
" they slowly sink the beak into the plant, using the jaws to make 



178 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

the necessary perforation. By moving forward and backward 
and twisting to the right and left, the beetle will often hollow out a 
cavity beneath the surface much larger than the superficial injury 
will indicate." As the lower part of the stalk becomes hardened, 
they leave it for the terminal portion, and when the cars commence 
to form they often penetrate the husk and gorge out the soft cob. 
Sometimes the injury thus inflicted is but slight, merely resulting 
in a puncturing of the leaves when they unfold, these holes being 
in a series across the leaf resulting from a single puncture when the 
leaf was folded, and looking much like the work of the corn-root 
webworm; but when several beetles attack a young plant, they 
will either kill it outright or so deform the foliage and stalk that 
no ear will mature. 

Several other species have also been known to do more or less 
injury to corn, viz., S. scoparius, placidus, cariosus, sculptilis, 
and pertinax, but so far as known their habits and injuries are 
much the same as of those already described. 

Means of Control. — The control of these pests is rather a diffi- 
cult task. S. ochreus, as in fact are all of the species, is most 
injurious on recently cleared swamp-lands, and usually disappears 
as fast as these lands are drained and cultivated. Planting flax, 
potatoes, or some crop not attacked by these insects for the first 
crop will largely prevent so serious injury to a subsequent corn 
crop. The burning over of grass- and swamp-lands infested with 
the beetles will also be of considerable value. 

The Maize Bill-bug * 

Throughout the Southern States and northward to Kansas 
there has been more or less serious injury by a bill-bug which has 
been recognized for many years as Sphenophorus robustus Horn. 
Recently Dr. F. H. Chittenden has recognized this insect as a new 
species and Mr. E. O. G. Kelly has published a complete account of 
its life history, from which the following is taken. 

As will be seen below this species is known to pass its entire life 

* Splierioplioruf! tnaidis Chittn., see E. O. G. Kelly, Bulletin !>.'), Part II, 
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 



179 



history upon the corn-phmt, so that the common name given it 
appropriately distinguishes it from the other bill-bugs previously 
mentioned. It has, however, been found feeding and probably 
breeding in swamp-grass {Tripsacuni dactyloides), which may be 
its native food plant. 

Life History. — The eggs were found in southern Kansas during 
June, laid in punctures made by the female in young corn- plants. 
These egg punctures are mere slits 
and do not seem to materially injure 
the plant. The eggs hatch in from 
seven to twelve days, and from 
them emerge small footless, ding}^ 
white grubs, with chestnut-brown 
heads, of the appearance shown 
in Fig. 132. " They at once begin 
feeding on the tissues of the young 
corn at the bottom of the egg 
puncture, directing their burrow 
inward and downward into the tap- 
root. When they finish eating the 
tender parts of the taproot they 
direct their feeding upward, con- 
tinuing until full grown, allowing 
thelower portion of the burrow to 
catch the frass and excrement. 
This burrowing of the taproot of the 

young growing corn-plant is disastrous to the root system; . . . 
allowing it to die or become more or less dwarfed." Often the 
young larvae burrow into the heart of the plant and cut off 
the growing bud, thus killing the top. The larvae become full 
grown early in August, when they are about four-fifths of an inch 
long. " The larvae, on finishing their growth, descend to the lower 
part of the burrow, to the crown of the taproot, cutting the pith 
of the cornstalk into fine shreds, with which they construct a cell 
where they inclose themselves for pupation." The pupae are to 
be found in these cells in late August and early September, the 




Fig. 131. — The maize bill-bug 
{Sphenophorus ma id is C'hittn.) 
— foul' times natural size. 
(After Kelly, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



180 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



pupal stage lasting ten to twelve tlays. The adults commence to 

emerge by the middle of August and continue to do so until the 

middle of September. " Some of them leave the pupal cells, but 

most of them remain there 

for hibernation." Those 

which emerged disappeared 

and proba])ly hibernated in 

some dense, coarse grass near 

by. Those which hibernated 

in the pupal cells emerged the 

next spring about the time 

that young corn was sprouting. 

The beetles are from two-fifths 

to three-fifths of an inch long, 

of a dull shining black color, 

and sculptured as shown in Fig, 

131. " The beetles are rarely 

observed on account of their 





Fig. 132. — Larva of the maize bill- 
bug — twice natural size. (After 
Kelly, U. S. Dept. Agr.) , 



Fig. 133. — Corn plant showing the 
result of attack of the maize bill- 
bug: a, larval burrow containing 
pupa in natural position — reduced 
two-thirds; b, egg-puncture con- 
taining egg — enlarged. (After 
Kelly, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



quiet habits and because they are covered with mud — a condition 
which is more or less common among several species of this genus 
and which is caused by a waxy exudation of the elytra to which the 
soil adheres. The presence of the adults of this species in a corn- 
field is made evident by the withering of the top leaves of very 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 181 

young corn-plants, the plants having been severely gouged. 
After the plants grow 10 to 15 inches tall they do not kill them, 
but gouge out such large cavities in the stalks that they become 
twisted into all sorts of shapes. The attacked plants sucker pro- 
fusely, affording the young, tender growth for the Ijeetles to feed 
upon, even for man}' clays after the non-infested plants have 
become hard." Injury seems to be most serious on low land. 
Injury by this species somewhat resembles that done by the larger 
corn stalk-borer {Diatraea zeacolella), but is easily distinguished 
from the work of the other bill-bugs, as the punctures of the latter, 
which usually form a row or rows of holes in the leaves when they 
unfold, are not always fatal to the plants. 

Control. — ^Inasmuch as most of the beetles hibernate in the 
corn stubble, they may be readily destroyed by pulling out and 
burning the stubble. Care must be taken, however, to pull out 
the taproot, as the stalk will be liable to break above the beetle 
and leave it in the ground. As the infested stalks have a poor 
root system, they are easily pulled. 

The Corn Ear-worm =*= 

Practicallv the onlv insect injuring the ears of field-corn and 
the worst insect pest of sugar-corn, is the ear-worm. In the 
extreme South it is almost impossible to grow sugar-corn success- 
fully on account of i.ts injury, while further north it largely reduces 
the profits of corn grown for the cannery, and destro}-s a consider- 
able percentage of the kernels of field-corn. It is a most cosmopol- 
itan insect, being found throughout the United States and in many 
parts of the world, and has a long list of food plants, being known 
as the tomato fruit-worm, tobacco bud-worm, and cotton boll- 
worm (see pages 304, 234, 254) when attacking these plants, 
besides which it feeds on beans, peas, and many garden crops 
and forage plants, such as cowpeas and alfalfa. 

Life Historij. — Along the Gulf Coast the first moths appear in 
April, in the latitude of 33^ about the middle of May, and in the 
latitude of Delaware and Kansas, earl}- in June. 

* Heliothis obsoleta Fab. Family Noctuidce. 



182 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



The moth is al^out three-ciuartcrs of an inch long with a wing 
expanse of about If inches and is extremely variable in color and 
markings. Some are dull oli\'e green while others are yellowish 
or nearly white and with almost no mai-kings. In the most typical 
moths the wings are bordered with dark bands, the wing veins are 
black and the fore-wings arc spotted with black. 




Fig. 134. — Corn car-worms at work. The central cob has Ix-eu attacked l)y 
a nearly full-grown worm, which has bored through the husk near the 
middle. • 



Tlic eggs are semlsplicrical in sliapc, about one-fiflcenth inch m 
diameter, light yellowish, and prettily corrugated with ridges as 
shown in Fig. 184. Those of the first brood are laid on corn, peas, 
beans, or whatever food-plants arv ax'ailablc, and hatch in three to 
five days, depending upon the temperature*. 

The caterpillars of the first generation often attack corn when 
about knee-high, feeding in the axils of the tender leaves, so that 



INSECTS INJUR lOUS TO CORN 



183 



when the leaves unroll they hear horizontal rows of holes. The 
caterpillars are exceedingly vai'iable in color, being from a light 
green through rose color and l)rown to almost black, and either 




Fig. 135. — Corn ear-worm. Hu.sk of ear of sugar-corn torn open, showing 
worms at work on tip and hole through which a full grown worm has left. 

striped, spotted or perfectly plain. They become full grown in 
about 2^ weeks and are then al)Out 1:^ to U inches long. When 
done feeeding the caterpillar bui'rows 2 to o inches into the soil 
near the base of the plant. A cell is then constructed which runs 
back to within a half inch of the surface of the soil, so that the 



184 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

moth ma)' readily pusli off tliis siufact' soil and escape. The 
burrow finished, the larva i-etires to the bottom of the cell and 
there molts and enters the pupal stage. 

The pupa is foui-fifths inch long, shining reddish-brown. 
During the summer the moths emerge about two weeks later, 
but the last generation in the fall passes the winter in the pupal 
stage. Thus the complete life cycle from egg to adult moth 
requires slightly over a month in midsummei', and from six to 
eight weeks foi- the spring and fall l)roods. 

The second generation of motlis appears about the middle 
of July in the latitude of Delaware and Kansas. In the far 
South the second generation of moths appears when corn is com- 
ing into silk and tassel, upon which the moths always prefer to 
lay their eggs. As a result, the caterpillars of the second genera- 
tion in the South, and the third further North, do serious injury 
to field-corn, gnawing out the kernels at the tips of the ears, and 
furnishing favorable conditions for molds to propagate, which 
do further injury. From 2 to 3 per cent of the corn crop of the 
country, with a cash value of $30,000,000 to $50,000,000, is thus 
destroyed by the ear worm annually. 

The third generation of moths appears the last of August 
in Delaware and Kansas and gives rise to the third brood of 
caterpillars, which are there the most destructive l)rood on field- 
corn and sugar-corn, frequently causing a loss of from 10 to 50 
per cent of the latter crop. The caterpillars become full grown 
during the latter part of September and change to pupte, which 
hibernate over winter as already described. 

In the Gulf States there are four full broods and along the 
Clulf Coast there may be five or six, while in the Northern States 
there are but two generations, with possibl}- liut one in Ontario. 

Control. — As the pupae pass the winter in the soil, by all means 
the most satisfactory and practical means of control is to plow 
infested land in late fall or during the winter, plowing deeply 
and harrowing. This will break up the pupal cells, crush some 
of the pupae, and expose others to the rigors of winter to which 
most of them will succumb. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN 185 

The early planting of tifld-curn prevents the moths from lay- 
ing their eggs upon it, as it will have passed the silking stage and 
other fields which are in silk will be preferred; it being possible 
to thus reduce the injury by at least a third by earl}' planting. 

Where the caterpillars of the first generation are working in 
the unfolding leaves, they are sometimes poisoned with Paris 
green, mixed with flour or corn meal as used for this pest on 
tobacco, but as Paris green often burns the foliage powdered 
arsenate of lead will doubtless be found equally effective with- 
out burning. 



CHAPTER X 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED (iRAINS * 

The fanner who stores his grain, awaiting a higher price, 
is sometimes sadly disappointed to find that it has been so 
riddled by " weevil " that it brings no more than had it been sold 
previously. 

The term " weevil " is rather a comprehensive one, being 
commonly applied to almost every insect infesting stored food- 
products. Only a few species are commonly injurious in the 
farm-granaiy. 

Grain-weevils 

Of these the Granary-weevil f and the Rice-weevil | (Fig. 
136), are the most common and widely distributed. Both of 
these insects have infested grain from the most ancient times, so 
long, in fact, that the granary-weevil has lost the use of its wings 
and remains entirely indoors. They are small, brown beetles, 
from one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch in length, with long snouts 
which are of great service in boring into the kernels of grain. 
By means of them the females punctiu-e the grain and then insert 
an egg in the cavity. The larva hatching from this is without 
legs, somewhat shorter than the adult, white in color, and of a 
very robust build, being almost as broad as long. It soon devours 
the soft interior of the kernel and then changes to a ])ii})a, from 
which the adult beetle emerges in about six Aveeks from the 
time the egg was laid. 

Only a single larva inhal)its a kernel of wheat, but several 

* See " Some In.sects Injurious to Stored tirains," F. 11. Chittenden, 
Farmers' Bulletin, iii, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
t Calandra granaria Linn. 
X Calandra oryzoe Linn. I'amily Calandridae. 

186 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 



187 



(pV/v- 



-Va*- 



will often be found in that of corn. Not only do the hirvtc 
injure the grain, but the Ijeetles feed upon it, and then hollow 
out a shelter for themselves within the hull. The beetles are 
quite long-lived, and thus do considerable damage. The egg- 
laying period is equally long, and as there are three or four broods 
in the North and six or more in the South, it has been estimated 
that the progeny of one pair would amount to 6000 insects in a 
single season. 

Grain-beetles 

Another beetle very common in the granary, Ijut of tjuite 
different appearance, is the Saw-toothed Grain-beetle * (Fig. 137). 
It is a cosmopolitan 
pest and is also nearly 
omnivorous. The 
beetle is only about 
one-tenth of an inch 
long, very much flat- 
tened, of a dark-brown 
color, and ma}' be 
easily recognized by 
the six saw-like teeth 
on each side of the 
thorax. The larva is 
of a dirty-white color, 
and quite dissimilar 
from that of the gra- 
nary weevil. Having 
six legs to carry it 
about, it is not satisfied 
with a single seed, but 
runs about here and 

there, nibbling at several. When full grown the larva glues together 
several grains or fragments into a little case, and inside of this trans- 
forms to the pupa and then to the beetle. In early spring this life 
* Silvanuv siirituiniensis Linn. Family Cucujidoe. 




Fici. 136. — The grain weevil (Cdldndrii granuria) : 
a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa, d, the rice weevil 
(C. oryza) : beetle — all enlarged. (After Chit- 
tenden; U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



188 INSECT PESTS OF FARIM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

cycle requires from six to ten weeks, ])ut in summer it is lecluced 
to about twenty-five days. Thus there are from tliree to six 
or more generations during a season, according to tlH> hititude. 
The Red or Square-necked Grain-beetle* is about (Jiesame 
size as the last species, l)ut is of a reddish-brown color, and the 
thorax is ahnost square, nearly as broad as the abdomen, and 
not notched on the sides. It breeds in corn in the field and in 
the granary, first destroying the germ, so that it is especially 




Fig. 137. — ^The saw-toothed grain beetle {Silvanus Surinam ens In): a, adult 
beetle; b, pupa; c, larva — all enlarged; d, antenna of larva — still more 
•enlarged; d, the red or square-necked grain beetle (Cathartus gcmellatus 
Duv.) (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



injurious to seed-corn. It feeds mostly out of doors, though 
sometimes infesting the granary. 

The I'oreign (irain-beetle f is of much the same general 
ai)pearanc(', but smaller and of a more robust appearance It 
eeds upon a great variety of stored products as "well as grain, 
but rarely becomes troublesome. 

The Cadelle t also has lli(> bad hal)it of first attacking the 
embryo or gci'ui of 1 1w kcind, and going from one korn(>l to another, 
thus destioys a large luimhci- for seed purposes. It possesses, 

* ('athfirlus yemMatiis Duv. 

t Cathartu.s advena Waltl. 

t Tenebroide.H rnauritanicus Linn. P'amily Trogositidoe. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 



180 



however. I he good trail of t'ecdhia; on other injui'ious grain- 
insects. The l)eeth^ is o})loiig, flat, nearly l)hick, and about 
one-third of an inch loiiu, 'I'lic larva is of a whiti^h color, witli a 






Fig. 138.— TheCadelle {T c neb ru ides nimirilanirus): a, ;ulult beetle wiih greatly 
enlarged antenna above; b, pupa; c, larva — all enlarged. (After 
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

brown head, the thoracic segments are marked with brown, and 
the abdomen terminates in two dai'k horny processes. It is a 
fleshy grub, nearly three-fourths of an inch long when full grown. 

Flour- and Meal-moths 

The larva^ of several small moths sometimes infest grain 
in store, but rarely do it serious damage, preferring the softer 
flour, meal, and food-products. 

The most destructive of these is the Mediterranean Flour- 



190 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



moth * (Fig. 139). This insect was jM'actically unknown until 
1877, l)ut during recent years it has occasioned the loss of many 
thousands of dollars to mill-ownoi-s. It occurs throughout 





Fig. 139. — The Mediterranean flovir-moth (EpJiestia kuehnieUa): a, moth; b, 
same from side, resting; c, larva; d, pupa — enlarged; e, abdominal joint 
of larva — more enlarged; /, larva, dorsal view. (After Chittenden 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 





Fig. 140. — The Indian meal-moth (Plodia inter punctella): a, moth; b, pupa; 
c, caterpillar; /, same, dorsal view — somewhat enlarged; d, head, and e, 
first abdominal segment of caterpillar — more enlarged. (After Chitten- 
den, U. H. Dept. Agr.) 

Europe, and is found in Mexico and Chili. It was first recognized 
in America in 1889, and has since done an increasing amount 
of damage in California, in New York and Pennsylvania, North 
Carolina, Alabama, New Mexico, and Coloi-ado, and has Ix'come 

* Ephesitia kuehniella Zell. Family Pyralidce. See W. G. Joluison, 
Appendix 19th Report State Entomologist of Illinois, and F. L. Washburn, 
Special Report of the State Entomologist of Minnesota on the Mediter- 
ranean flour-moth. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 



191 



quite generally distributed. " The caterpillars form cylindrical 
silken tubes in which they feed, and it is in great part their habit 
of web-spinning that renders them so injurious where they obtain 
a foothold. Upon attaining full growth the caterpillar leaves 
its original silken domicile and forms a new web, which becomes 
a cocoon in which to untlergo its transformations to pupa and 
imago. It is while searching for a suitable place for transforma- 
tion that the insect is most troublesome. The infested flour 
becomes felted together and lumpy, the machinery becomes 
clogged, necessitating frec^uent and prolonged stoppage, and result- 
ing in a short time in the loss of thousands of dollars in large 
establishments." 

The life cycle of 
this insect requires 
ordinarily about 
two months, but 
may be completed 
in thirty-eight days 
u n d e r the most 
favorable condi- 
tions. The adult 
moth measures a 
little less than an 

inch across the expanded wdngs. The fore-wings are of a lead- 
gray color, with transverse black markings, while the hind- 
wings are dirty whitish, with a darker border. 

The Indian Meal-moth * (Fig. 140) larvae resemble those of 
the grain-beetles in having a special liking for the embryo of 
wheat-grains. They spin a fine silken web as they go from seed 
to seed, to which they ])ecome attached, and to which is added a 
large amount of excrenu^nt, thus spoiling for food much more 
grain than is actually injured. 

The moth has a wing-expanse of an inch; the inner third 
of the fore-wings being a whitish gray, and the, outer portion 
reddish-brown, with a coppery lustre. 

* Plodia inter punclelld Hbn. Family Pyralldce. 




Fig. 141. — The meal snout-moth (Pyralis farinalis) : 
a, adult moth; 6, larva; c, pupa in cocoon — twice 
natural size, (.\fter Chittenden, U. S. D. Agr.) 



192 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Meal Snout-moth * (Fig. 141) is of a light brown color, 
the thorax, base, and tips of the fore-wings being darker brown. 
The wings expand nearly an inch and are otherwise marked 
with whitish lines as shown in the figure. It is very similar to 
the last-mentioned species in its habits, constructing long tubes 
Avith silk and particles of the food in which it is living. The life- 
history is completed in about eight weeks, and four generations 
may oc-cur in a year. The moisture of " heated " grain is most 
favorable for the development of this pest, and it need not be 
feared if grain is kept in a clean, dry i)lacc. 

The Angumois Grain-moth t 

By far the worst granai'}' jiest throughout the South is the 
" fly-weevil," or Angumois grain-moth. 

H istor I/.— Tli'iH insect is an importation from Europe and receives 
its name from the fact that in 1760 it " was found to swarm in all 
the wheat-fields and granaries of Anguuiois and of the neighbor- 
ing provinces [of France], the afflicted inhabitants being therel)y 
deprived of their principal staple, and threatened with famine 
and pestilence from want of wholesome bread." The insect 
was first noted in this country in North Carolina in 1730, and in 
1796 was so abundant as to extinguish a ligiited candle when a 
granary was entered at night. It is essentially a southern insect, 
being very injurious to stored corn in the CJulf States. Of late 
years it seems to be moving steadily northward, being reported 
as injurious in central Pennsylvania and Ohio. Wheat, corn, 
oats, rye, barley, sorghum-seed, and even cow-peas are subject 
to injury. 

Life History. — The injury is not done by the moth, as might 
be reasonably supposed from the fact that it is the only form of 
the insect usually seen, but is done 1)}- the small caterpillars 
which feed within the grain, where they may l)e found during 
the winter. The caterpillar (>ats to the surface of the kernel, 
but not through it, thus leaving a thin lid which the moth can 

* Pyralis farinalis Linn. Family Pyralidoc. 
t Sitotroga cerealella Oliv. Family Gelechiidoe. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 



193 



easily push aside when it comes out in the spring, and then covers 
itself with :i fine silken web. At this time the caterpillar is 
usually fully gi'own and is al)out one-fifth of an inch long, of a white 
color, with the head yellowish and harder, and having six jointed 
legs in front, a series of four pairs of fleshy pro-legs along the 
middle, and another pair of soft legs at the end of the body. 
With warm spring weather the caterpillar changes to a pupa 
and about the time that the wheat comes into head the adult 
moth emerges. As soon as it emerges, whether outdoors or in a 




Fig. 142. — The Angumois grain-mot li (Silolroga rerealdla): r(, eggs; b. larva 
at work; c, larva, side view; d, pupa; c, moth; /, same, side, view. 
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



barn, the moth at once flies to the grain-field, where the eggs are 
deposited. The exact time at which the moths emerge varies, 
but occurs some time late in May oi- in June. The moths quite 
closely resemble the clothes-moth often found flying about houses. 
The wings are quite narrow, and when expanded measure about 
one-half an inch from tip to tip, being of a yellowish or buff color, 
marked with black. The eggs are laid in the longitudinal channel 
on the side of the grain. Each female lays from sixty to ninety 
eggs in lots of about twenty each, one lot thus being about enough 
to infest the kernels of a head. The eggs hatch in from four to 
seven days. The young caterpillars are at first very active 
and soon find tender places and bore into the kernels, leaving 



194 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



almost iin-isihlc opciiiiifis. These catci'pillars become full 

giown in about three weeks, just 
about the time the grain is mature. 
About harvest-time the second brood 
^A of moths appears. These lay their 

^^Pj eggs during July, depositing them on 

th(^ I'ipe lieads if the harvest be a little 
dchiycd, but on the wheat in stack if 
harvest is prompt. Usually the 
caterpillai-s hatching from these eggs 
become full grown and remain in the 
grain over winter, but in warm sea- 
sons, especiall}' if warm in September 
or when the pest is unusually abun- 
dant, a third brood of moths appears 
early in SeptcmlxM-. These lay another 
Ijatch of eggs about the middle of 
September, depositing them upon the 
open ends of grain in stack or mow, 
which thus becomes more infested than 
that in the centre. In grain stacked 
outside, the caterpillars of this brood 
Ix'comc full grown slowl}' and remain 
in the grain over winter, but if in 
the barn they grow faster and a 
fourth brood of moths appears about 
the middle of October, the moths being 
noticed in threshing. The insects con- 
tinue to breed within doors all winter 
as long as any grain remains, though 
the}- become sluggish and cease feed- 
ing dunng cold weather. The number 
of ])roods is entirely dependent upon 
the latitude and weather conditions; 
ill the South, where they can breed 
contituiously, tliei'e being as many as eight in a year. 



« 



W 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STOKED GRAINS 195 

Corn is frequently attacked, but not until it is ripe and husked, 
and then but rarely when husked in October and November and 
stored outdoors in slatted cribs. Seed-corn stored in barns, and 
in the South in almost any situation, is often badly injured. 

Aside from the loss in weight, grain when badly infested 
becomes unfit for milling purposes, and will even be refused by 
cattle and horses, which should not be urged to eat it, though 
hogs and fowls will readily consume it. 

Remedies. — Dr. J. R. Smith, in an interesting bulletin upon 
this pest, to which we are indebted for much of the above, advises 
as follows: " Thresh as soon after harvest as possible, and bulk in 
tight bins or in good sacks. [By " tight bins " are meant those 
which will not permit the entrance or exit of the moths.] If the 
grain is dry when harvested, it may be threshed at once; if not, as 
soon as it is in good condition. If the sacked grain is infested, 
there will not be wormy kei'nels sufficient to heat the grain. The 
moths cannot make their way out and are stifled. Nothing can 
come in from outside and the grain remains safe. The threshing 
itself kills many of the insects and jars and rubs off many of the 
eggs. If l)inned, the bins should be tight and the grain should be 
tested occasionally for any appreciable heating. If it heats per- 
ceptibly, it indicates considerable infestation, and it should be 
treated with carbon bisulfide at once, used at the rate of one 
drachm per cubic foot, or 1 pound for 2.")0 cubic feet bin-space." 
Recent investigations have shown that more ])isulfide will often 
be necessary. See page 19S. 

Those having wheat unthreshed, whether in stack or mow, 
should thresh at once, and treat as above directed, except that if 
much of it is noticed to be wormy, it should be treated with carbon 
bisulfide at once, as soon as threshed, which if done thoroughly 
will prevent any fui'ther infestation that year. 

Barns and storehouses should be cleaned up and freed from all 
loose and scattered grain — chickens will help in this— before April 
1st, so that no moths will be allowed to develop and infest the 
grain in the field. Places where grain has been in shock the pre- 
vious season should be cleaned up by the aid of chickens. Thus if 



196 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

there is any probability of grain being infested, it should be kept 
tightly covered in the spring so as not to permit the spread of the 
moths to the fields. 

Prevention of " Weevil " 

Undoubtedly grain-insects can usually be more successfully 
combated by a proper housing of the grain. No matter how often 
the insects are destroyed in a granary, if the remainder of the barn 
is full of dust, sweepings, and refuse, as it generally is, on which 
the beetles can feed and in which they will breed, and if the gran- 
ary is not absolutely tight, as soon as the gas passes off the insects 
from the barn will again enter the granary, and soon it will be as 
l)adly infested as ever. 

Cleanliness. — " Cleanliness will accomplish much toward the 
prevention of injury from these pests, the cause of a great propor- 
tion of injuries in granaries, mills, elevators, and other structures 
where grain and feed are stored being directly traceable to a dis- 
regard of neatness. Dust, dii"t, rubbish, and refuse material con- 
taining sweepings of grain, flour, and meal are too frequently per- 
mitted to accumulate and serve as breeding-places for a multitude 
of injurious insects. 

" The floors or corners and walls of the barn or storehouse 
should be frequently swept, and all material that has no commer- 
cial value burned." 

The Granary. — " The ideal farmer's granary, from the stand- 
point of ins(>ct ravages, should be built at some distance from 
other buildings, and the rooms constructed of matched floorings 
so as to be as near vermin-proof as possible. The doors should fit 
tightly, closing upon a rabbet, which may be covered with felt or 
packing, and the windows covered with frames of wire gauze to pre- 
vent the passage of insects. The floor, walls, and ceilings should 
ho smooth, so as not to afford any lui-king-places for the insects, 
and it would be well to have them oiled, painted, or whitewashed 
for further security. A coating of coal-tar has been strongly recom- 
mended for the latter purpose." 

" The \:ilu(' of a c-ool j)lac(> as a respository of grain has been 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 197 

known of old, and a building in which any artificial heat is 
employed is undesirable for grain storage. The ' heating ' and fer- 
mentation of grain, as is well known, is productive of ' weevil,' and 
this should be prevented by avoiding moisture and by ventilation- 
" The storage of grain in large bulk is to be commended, as the 
surface layers only are exposed to infestation. This practice is 
particidarl}' valuable against the moths, wliicli do not penetrate 
far beneath the surface. Frequent agitation of the grain is also 
destructive to the moths, as they are unable to extricate them- 
selves from a large mass, and perish in the attempt. The true 
granary-weevils (small dark-brown beetles with long curved 
snouts, similar to the pea-weevil), however, penetrate more 
deeply, and although bulking is of value against them, it is not 
advisable to stir the grain, as it merely distributes them more 
thoroughly through the mass." — Chittenden. 

Destruction of " Weevil " 

Carbon Bisulfide. — " The simplest, most effective, and most 
inexpensive remedy for all insects that affect stored grain and 
other stored products is the bisulfide of carljon, a colorless liquid, 
with a strong disagreeable odor, which, however, soon passes 
away." At ordinary temperatures it vaporizes rapidly, forming a 
heavy gas, which is highly inflammable and a powerful poison. 

Application. — It may be applied directly to the infested grain 
or seed without injury to its edibleness or viability by spraying 
with an ordinary watering-can having a fine rose nozzle. In 
moderately tight bins it is more effective, however, as it evaporates 
more slowly and diffuses more evenly, if placed in shallow dishes 
or pans, or on bits of cloth or cotton waste distributed about on 
the surface of the grain or infested material. The liquid volatil- 
izes rapidly, and, being heavier than air, descends and permeates 
th(^ mass of grain, killing all insects and other vermin present. 
The bin should then be covered with boards, canvas, or blankets, 
and allowed to remain at least twenty-four hours. If to be used 
for seed, it should not be left for over thirty-six hours; but if not, 



198 INSECT PEST8 OF FARM, ClAllDEN AND ORCHARD 

leave it forty-eight hours, which will do it no injury for food. 
.Vfter ti'cating, keep the grain covered to prevent reinfestation. 

Amount to Use.— It was formerly reconmit'nded that the bisul- 
fide be applied at the rate of 1 to 3 pounds to 100 bushels of grain 
or 1000 cubic feet of open space. Recent experiments, however, 
have shown the total inadecjuacy of this dosage. Experiments 
made by Hinds and Hunter * show that the effectiveness of the 
gas is in direct proportion to the temperatur-e. Below 60° F. the 
fumigation is ineffective and inadvisable. A dosage which .will 
kill practically all the weevil at 67° to 70° will kill but 60 to 70 per 
cent at 60° to 65°. They recommend the use of 5 pounds per 
1000 cubic feet where the room or bin is quite tight and the tem- 
perature is 70° or above. For loose rooms and lower tempera- 
tures, the dosage must be largely increased and may not be profit- 
able. The above estimates are based upon the grain being in a 
cubical shape; if it is spread out shallow, more bisulfide will be 
necessary. 

Caution. — " Certain precautions should always be observed. 
The vapor of carbon bisulfide is deadly to all forms of animal 
life if inhaled in sufficient quantity, l)ut there is no danger in 
inhaling a small amount. The vapor is highly inflammable, 
but with proper care that no fire of any kind, as, for example, 
a lighted cigar, lantern, or light of any kind, be brought into 
the vicinity until the fumes have entirely passed away, no trouble 
will be experienced." 

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. — Mills and stoi'ehouses which needed 
treatment were formerly fumigated with carbon bisulfide, which 
is still employed to a considerable ext(>nt, l)ut this has been 
largely replaced ])y fumigation with liydrocyanic acitl gas, which 
obviates the risk from fire. Directions for the use of this gas 
should ))(> obtained from the entomologist of the State experiment 
station or from the Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

Sulfur Fumes. — Professor R. I. Smith (l.c) has mad(> experi- 

* Hinds and Hunter, Journal of Economic iMilomology, Vol. HI, p. 47: 
J{. I. Smith, Bulletin 203, N. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS 199 

ments with sulfur dioxicl, produced by burning sulfur slightly wet 
with alcohol, and finds that it will effectively kill grain insects 
but injui'es the germinating power of the grain. " It was found that 
the fumes produced by burning 2h pounds of sulfur either in a 
moist or dry atmosphere^ of 1000 cubic feet space, for twent}' 
hours, would kill all exposed adult insects and practically all the 
young stages in the grain, but that this also destroyed its germinat- 
ing power. . . While this treatment cannot be recommended 
for general fumigation, there is no doubt of its being the easiest 
and cheapest method of fumigating corn cribs, granaries and 
similar places whenever they are being cleaned out and freed 
of insects in preparation for the reception of more grain." 

Heat. — The heating of grain was one of the earliest means 
known of combating grain insects, but has been little used in this 
country. Recently, however, Mr. Geo. A. Dean of the Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station,* has shown that by super- 
heating mills they may be rid of insect pests much more quickly 
and cheaply than by fumigation, and with no risk from fire, oi- 
from cyanide poisoning. His experiments show that if the 
temperature surrounding an insect be maintained above 120° F., 
with a normal amount of moisture, that in a very few minutes it 
will be killed. This promises to become one of the most prac- 
ticable methods of cleaning mills and may l)e used for small 
quantities of grain, where there are facilities for heating it or 
placing it in a superheated room, but probably carbon bisulfide 
fumigation will be found more practicable for small amounts. 
* Geo. A. Dean, Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. IV, p. 142. 



CHAPTER XI 

INSECTS IX.JTTRIOUS TO CLOVER* 

The Clover Root-borer j 

The clover root-borer is practically the only insect pest which 
seriously injures clover roots. It has long been known as a 
clovei- pest in Europe, but was first noticed in this country in 






Fifi. 144. — The clover root-borer {Hylastinuff obsciirus): a, adult, natural 
size at right; 6, larva or grul); r, pupa — muoli enlarged. (After Webster, 
U. 8. Dept. Agr.) 

western New York in 1S76, whence it has spread southward to 
West Virginia and westward to Illinois and southern Michigan, 
and has also been injurious in Oi'egon. 

Life Hi^torji. — During the winter the lieetles ma>' be foinid 
iiibei'nating in theii' iMirrows in infcsicd clover I'oots. Tiiey are 
not icadily distinguishable, for ilicy aic scarcely one-eighth 
incii long, and ar(> of a I'eddish-brown coloi' nuich like that of the 
l)urrow. \\"\\\\ the wanner weather of spring they commence 

* See The Insect Pests of Clover and Alfalfa, J. W. Folsom, 2.5th Report 
of the State Entomologist of Illinois, p.p. 41-12-1. 

t Hylasl'inus obscurus Marshain. Faniilv Scolytidce. 

200 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 



201 



burrowing and feeding in the roots, and during late May and early 

June the females deposit their eggs along 

the sides of the tunnels. " The female 

gouges out a shallow cavity, more often 

in the crown of the plant, sometimes at 

the sides of the root even 2 or 3 inches 

below the crown, and in this places, 

singly, but not far separated, about a 

half dozen pale whitish, elliptical, very 

minute eggs. These hatch in about a 

week, and the larvae for a time feed in 

the excavation made l)y the mother, 

but soon burrow downward into the root, 

and before the 1st of August, the majority 

of them have become full-grown, and 

passed into the pupal stage. By October 

nearly all have become fully developed 

beetles, but they make no attempt to 

leave the plant until the following spring." 

The spread of the insect occurs very 

largely in the spring when the beetles 

fly from field to field, seeking uninfested 

plants in which to perpetuate their kind. 

It has been observed that alsike clover 
is not so badly injured as the mammoth 
and common red clover, on account of 
the fibrous roots and the tendency of 
its tap-root to divide. In Europe alfalfa 
is injured, but no injury has yet been 
reported to that crop in this country, 
though it may be anticipated. 

" While an infested clover plant sooner or later svu'cunibs to 
an attack by this insect, life may l)e lengthened or shortened by 
meteorological conditions. Thus, if llie s})ring or early surmiier 
is very dry, the plants b<>gin lo dry in patches late in June, as 
soon as the hay crop is removed; but if there is much rain dur- 




FiG. 145. — Clovrr rout, 
showing work of clover 
root - borer. Slightly 
enlarged. (After 
Webster, U. S. D. Agr.) 



202 



INSECT PESTS OF FAR.M, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



ing this period, the weakened plants may continue to live until 
winter, dymg out before spring. In either case the farmer is 
likely to be misled and attril)ut(^ the loss to the weather."* 
Clover is practically exempt from attack the first year as the 
roots arc not large enough to accommodate the insects, and it is 
not until the second year that \hv })lants are destroyed. 

Control. — The only effective means of control suggested is 
summer following as soon as the hay crop has been removed. 
The field should then be plowed up at once, before the larvae 
have transformed to pupse, so that the hot sun, and di-y winds, 
will dry out the roots of the clover and thus starve the larva*, 
thereby preventing their developing and migrating to other 
fields. Clover fields should not ho allowed to stand over two 
years in infested localities. Xo injury seems to l>e done in 
pastures. A system of rotation in which the crop is mowed foi- hay 
and seed the first year, and pastured and then l^roken up the 
second year, should keep the pest under control. 



The Clover Stem-borer 
Early in June one frccpienlly finds (he 




it 

KiG. 14(5. — Clover .stcm-lK)rcr {Tjnnguria mozardi): 
the eggs natural .size and magnified, the 
beetle, larva, and pupa — all much enlarged, 
and alwve, a clover-stem with the larva at 
work in it. (After Coin.stock.) 

* Quotation.^ from V. M. Wci)ster, The Clover 
Bureau of Entomology, V . S. Dept. Agr. 

t Languria vwznrdi Vi\\>. I'^amily ErotijlidK. 



b(»etles of the Clover 
Stem-borer here and 
there in the clover- 
field. They are slen- 
der, shining l)eetles, 
about one-third of an 
inch long, witii a red 
head and thorax and 
l)luish-black w i n g - 
covers. The l)eetles 
themselves seem to 
do little or no harm. 
Hi])e mating over 
winter, they lay eggs 

-root Borer, Circular 110, 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 203 

in the pith of the stems early in June, and the larva? 
emerging from these feed upon the pith of the stem, often 
very seriously weakening or killing it. The larva; become full- 
grown in a short time, transform to pupie, and the beetles appear 
by August. 

Clover is only one of a dozen food-jilants of this insect, which 
is widely distributed. It rarely does any considerable injur}- 
where clover is regularh* cut in early summer and fall, and need 
not be feared when this is r.ot neglected. 

The Clover Leaf -weevil * 

The clover leaf- weevil is a stout, oval l)eetle, about one-third 
inch long, with a long, thick snout. It is of a l^rownish color, 
with several narrow gra}' lines above and broad gray stripes 
on each side, and with twenty rows of small, deep punctures 
on the wing-covers. It is also a native of Europe and made its 
first appearance in the same section of w(>stern New York as the 
last species, about 1881. Since then it has spread eastward to 
Rhode Island and Vermont, southward to North Carolina and 
West \'irginia, and westward to Wisconsin and Illinois. Every 
few years the w-eevils and their larva? destroy much of the foliage 
in restricted localities, Ijut rarely are they very injurious the next 
season. Eed clover, alfalfa, and white clover are preferred in the 
order named; in Illinois the mammoth and alsike are also eaten. 

Life History. — In early fall the female beetles lay their eggs 
in crevices among the stems near the base of the plant, which 
hatch in from three to six weeks. The young larva? which hatch 
from them are without legs, but manage to climb b}^ means of 
the prominent tubercles on the lower surface of the boch*. The}- 
are light yellowish-green, becoming deeper green as they grow 
older, the head is brown, and down the middle of the back 
is a white or pale yellow stripe bordered wdth reddish. The 
larva; become partially grown before winter sets in, when they 
hibernate in rubbish or just under the soil until spring, when 
they continue to feed upon the foliage and become full-grown 
* Phytonomus jninctatus Fab. Family Curculionida. 



204 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

in May and early June. They feed mostly at night and are 
hardly noticeable in th(> day, when they lie protected around 
the base of the plant, l>'ing curled up head to tail. The injury 
to the foliage is quite characteristic, the edges of the leaves being 
eaten in a regular manner as shown in Fig. 147. When full grown 




Fig. 147. — Clover leaf-weevil {Plnjloiiomu.s pii.ncUdus Fal)r.): a, egg magnified 
and natural size; bbbb, larvae; c, recently hatched larva; d, head of 
larva; e, jaws of the same; /, cocoon; g, same magnified to show the 
meshes; /(, pupa; i, weevil, natural size; /, the same magnified; k, top 
view of the beetle; I, tarsus and claws of the beetle; m, antenna of the 
beetle. (After Riley.) 

the larva buries itself just under the surface of the soil and makes 
an oval ceil, in which it spins a delicate cocoon consisting of a 
coarse network of pale yellow threads, which later turn brown, 
as shown in Fig. 147. Occasionally the cocoon is made on the 
surface or among the bases of the stems. In this the pupal 
stage is passed, lasting two or three weeks; the beetles being 
most common in July and August. The damage which the 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 205 

})pptle.s do to the second crop of clover i.s fully equal that done 
by the larvae to the first, and is more apparent because the soil 
i,s then dry and the plant grows more slowly. 

That this insect has not become a more serious pest is due to 
the fact that as often as it becomes excessively abundant the larvae 
are almost completely destroyed by a fungous disease.* When 
affected by this disease the larva^ climb to the top of a blade of 
grass, curl tightly around the tip, and soon die, first becoming 
covered with a white mold and then turning to a jelly-like mass. 
The spores of the fungus become scattered to healthy individuals, 
which soon succumb, so that before long nearl}^ all are destroyed, 
and rarely do enough survive to cause trouble the next year. 

Control. — On account of this disease repeated injury has been 
so rare that no means of artificial control has been necessary. 
" The necessity for the employment of any remedy does not 
appear until the clover is well on in its second year's growth," says 
Dr. Folsom (I.e.). '' If damage is anticipated, however, it would 
seem advisal)le to pasture the clover lightly or to clip back in the 
spring; this does not hurt the clover, is highly desirable as a means 
of forestalling the attacks of some other clover pests (see page 
214), and might check the larvae of the leaf -weevil somewhat, 
though it is possible that they would subsist on the cut stems until 
the new growth started ; and in cold weather they can live a long 
time without any food. After the second season red clover should 
be plowed under to get rid of this pest, as well as for other agricul- 
tural reasons." 

The Alfalfa Weevil * 

In recent years a first cousin of the last species has been intro- 
duced into Utah, where it has become firmly established and 
promises to become the most serious obstacle to alfalfa culture. 
The alfalfa weevil is a native of Europe, western Asia, and north- 
ern Africa, where it is common but never very seriously injurious. 

* Empusa spJuEroperma Fres. 

* Phytonomus murinus Fab. Family Curculionidce . See E. G. Titus, 
Bulletin 110, Utah Agr. Exp. Sta., and F. M. Webster, Circular 137, Bureau 
of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



206 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



It was first noticed in America near Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1904, 
and has been increasing and spreading until it now occupies an 
area of fully 100 square miles around Salt Lake Cit}'. 

The beetles are from one-eighth to three-sixteenth inch long, 
dark brown, marked with black and gray hairs which gives them 
a mottled aj)pearanc(> as shown in I'ig. 14!)c. These hairs or scales 

are gradually rubbed 
off, so that in spring 
many individuals are 
entirely black with 
small grayish spots. 

Life History. — The 
l)eetles seek shelter for 
hibernation b e fore 
frost in the autunm, 
either in the crowns 
of the alfalfa plants, 
or under thick grass, 
weeds, rubbish, leaves, 
or in hay or straw 
stacks. Often the}' 
winter in Ijarns where 
the hay is stored, the 
floors of which are 
often found covered 
with the beetles in 
winter and spring. It is estimated that fully 80 per cent of the 
weevils survive the winter in Utah . In the spring the beetles emerge 
and attack the young alfalfa plants as soon as there is sufficient food 
for them, usually late in March. The females commence laying 
eggs in early April and continue oviposition until early July. In 
early spring while the plants are small the females often push 
their eggs down between the leaves, but the usual method is to 
insert them in punctures made in the stem. This puncturing of 
the young stems often results in considerable damage in eai-ly 
spring. A single alfalfa plant which had escaped from cultiva- 




FiG. 148. — The alfalfa weevil, adults, clusterinj; 
on and attacking sprig of alfalfa — natural size. 
(After Webster, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



INSECTS IXJURIOUS TO CLOVER 



207 



tion was found to contain 127 of these punctures, antl as each 
puncture contains ten or fifteen eggs, this plant probably Ijore 
some 1200 eggs, although it was exceptional. 

The eggs hatch in about ten days and the small white larva3 
make their way to the leaves, in which they eat small holes. They 
soon turn a decidedly green color, and when full grown are about 
one-half inch long with a white stripe down the middle of the back 
and somewhat curved as shown in Fig. 149c. They attack the 
young leaves and crown so that a l)adl3' infested field will jnot get 
over six inches high; too short to mow. The larvae are most 





Fig. 149. — The alfalfa-weevil {I'ln/fonumus murinus): a, eggs; b, cocoon; 
c, larva; d, pupa; e, adult — all much enlarged. (After Webster, U. S. 
Dept. .\gr.) 

abundant in May and decrease through June. When full grown 
the larva? craAvl or drop to the ground and spin their cocoons 
in the dead leaves or rulibish. The cocoon is globular and 
composed of a network of rather coarse white threads. Fig. 149&. 
In it the larva transforms to a pupa, which stage lasts from 
one to two weeks, when the adult beetle emerges. 

From early to midsummer the lieetles liecome more and more 
abundant, and not only feed on the fresh growth, but attack the 
bark of the stems so that where excessively abundant they totally 
destroy the second crop. 

" The entire life of the insect, from the deposition of the egg to 
the emergence of the adult, may l)e any wlun-e from forty to seventy 



208 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

days, while the beetle itself may live, including the winter, from 
ten to fourteen months." — Webster. 

Inasmuch as literally millions of the beetles have been gath- 
ered by machines from a single acre, and as the beetles have been 
found in considerable numl)ers on freight and passenger trains, 
it is highly probable that the pest will be spread by the several 
trunk-lines of railroad which pass through the infested region, as 
in many places alfalfa has escaped from fields and grows as a weed 
along the railway tracks. It is, therefore, highly important that 
alfalfa growers be on their guard against this pest and take prompt 
measures for its destruction wherever it may gain a foothold. 
The weevils also spread rai)idly liy Hying in spring and summer, 
which migration is aided by t h(> winds. They may also be spread 
in articles shipped from an infested region and on wagons or auto- 
mobiles. 

Control. — The methods of control have not, as yet, been satis- 
factorily determined, though the entomologist of the Utah Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, E. G. Titus, has made extensi/e 
experiments with various methods, from whose report the following 
summary is taken. 

Old alfalfa fields are always worst injured, and fields should 
not be left down in alfalfa over about seven years. Thorough 
disking in the early spring has proved to be one of the essential 
factors in securing a good crop, as it increases the stand and stimu- 
lates a quick growth which enables the plants to better withstand 
the weevil injury. The use of a brush drag with which a spike- 
tooth harrow is combined has been found an excellent means of 
killing the larva?, as they ar(> knocked to the ground and large 
numbers killed by the fine dust. If the field is very hard it is 
advisable to disk it before using the drag. After the use of the drag, 
the fields should be watered where there is irrigation. Several 
machines have been constructed for gathering the weevils and 
have proven quite satisfactory. These are being ])(>rfected and 
promise to be of considerable value for the collection of the weevils, 
particularly when used in conjunction with the brush drags. In 
summarizing the methods of control, Professor Titus recommends; 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 



209 



" That alfalfa be disked in earh^ spring to stimulate it to better 
growth. Tluit the first growth be cut when the most of the eggs 
liave bccu laid (middle of May) and then brush-drag the field 
thoroughh'. Fields should be brush-dragged again after the first 
crop has l)een cut. All weeds and rubbish should l^e cleaned 
from the fields, yards, ditches and fence rows so that tliere will be 
less opportunity for the weevils to find winter shelter. Alfalfa 
should not be allowed to grow more than seven or (ught years in 
infested districts." 



The Clover-mite * 

The Clover-mite is nearly related to the common red spider 
of greenhouses, with which it is often confused, belonging to the 
same family of vegetable- 
feeding mites. It is 
however, about twice the 
size of the red spider, being 
fully three-tenths of an inch 
long. 

Though known as the 
clover-mite, on account of 
its feeding upon that plant, 
yet this insect was first 
known as, and is still, an 
important enemy of fruit- 
trees, more especially on 
the Pacific coast, but also in 
other sections of the country. 
The most injury seems to 
have been done to clover in 
the Central States as far 
south as Tennessee, though it has suffered somewhat even in 
the East. 

When attacked by the mite the leaves of clover or fruit- 

* Bryobia pratensis Garman. Family Tetranychidce. See C. L. Marlatt, 
Circular 19, 2d Ser., Division of Eiitoinology. U. S. Dept. Agr. 




Fig. 150. — The Clovei-iuite 
pratensis) . 



(Bryobid 



210 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

trees become yellow luid have a sickly appearance, as if affected 
with a fungous disease. Especiall}' upon the upper sides of the 
tender leaves of clover the juices are extracted over irregular 
areas, looking moi-e or less like the burrows of some leaf-mining 
larvae. Owing to the small size of the mites they may be doing 
considerable damage to the foliage and yet remain unnoticed; 
but in the egg stage the pest is much more readily detected and 
attacked. In the more northern States the eggs are laid in the 
fall, and do not hatch until tlu^ next spring. Fui-lher south, 
however, the adult mites hibernate over winter. The eggs are 
of a reddish color, laid upon the bark of trees, especially in the 
crotches, and in the West are sometimes so thickly placed as to 
cover considerable areas two or three la3'ers deep. 

When the adult mites leave the clover-fields in the fall to 
find hibernating quarters upon fruit-trees for the winter, they 
often become quite a nuisance by invading dwelling-houses which 
are in their path. This is more particularly the case throughout 
the Mississippi Valley. 

Remedies. — When swarming into a house their progress may 
be arrested by spraying the lower part of the building, walls, 
etc., with pure kerosene as often as necessary. Inside the house 
they may be destroyed by the use of pyrethrum powder (Persian 
insect-powder), burning brimstone, or spraying with benzine, 
care being taken not to bring the latter substance near the fire. 

The only practical way of protecting clover from the mite 
is by destroying the eggs and hibernating mites upon the fruit- 
trees in winter. This may be done 1)}' burning all the prunings 
and thoroughly spraying the trees with kerosene emulsion diluted 
with five parts of water, or with miscible oils or lime-sulfur 
mixture. Such a spraying will also protect the fruit-trees from 
the mite, and will destroy numerous other insects, such as the 
pear-leaf blister-mite, which hil^ernates upon the trees. Such 
small insects, so minute as to usually escape notice, are often 
responsible for a poor growth, and should be properly checked 
whenever known to be injurious. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 



211 



The Pea-louse * 

Although this aphid is worst as a pest of peas (see page 322 
for full account) it passes the winter on red and crimson clover 
which occasionally are seriously injured. In the spring of 1900, 
l)otli red and crimson clover were badly injured in Delaware, 
Maryland and A'irginia^ wliilc in DcKalb County, Illinois, con- 
siderable acreages were entirely destroyed in August, 1903, and 
more or less injury has been done since then. Where peas are 
available the aphides migrate to them in the spring, but other- 





FlG. 151. — The pea-aphis: 1, winged viviparou.s female; 2, wingless vivip- 
arous female — greatly enlarged. (After Folsom.) 



wise they continue to multiply on the clover. In late fall they 
return to the clover upon which the eggs are laid, in which stage 
the winter is passed, though in open winters many of the viviparous 
females live over winter on the clover. 

Control. — This is another pest which is usually held under 
control by a fungous disease, and as the fungus does not develop 
in dry seasons, with dry weather the aphis increases unchecked, 
while with a normal rainfall it is usually held in subjection, 
Unfortunately we are unal^le to predict the weather probabilities, 
and when the aphides are found present on clover in considerable 
* Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. Family AphididcB. 



212 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

numbers, the only thing to do is to cut and cure it as soon as pos- 
sible, before serious damage has been done. The drying of the 
clover will kill most of the aphides or cause them to migrate. 
Spring pasturing or clipping might result in destroying a sufficient 
number of the aphides so that no serious damage would result 
later. 

The Clover-seed Midge * 

The Clover-seed Midge seems to occur wherever red and white 
clover is grown in this country, and is a pest which must be taken 
into consideration in raising seed, for frequently it is not recognized 
as the cause of the failure of the seed crop. Alsike clover, and 
probably mammoth clover, is practically uninjured, as it flowers 
enough later to escape attack, nor is alfalfa infested. 

Life History. — The parent of all this troiil^le is a small midge, 
one-twelfth inch long, with ])lack head and thorax and 
reddish alxlomen, so small, indeed, that it will rarely be noticed. 
The antennae have sixteen or seventeen segments, and the wings 
have but few veins, as shown in Fig. 152. The female bears a 
slender retractile ovipositor which when extended from the tip 
of the abdomen is fully as long as the body, while the tip of the 
abdomen of the male is furnished with clasping organs. The 
midges appear in late spring just as the clover com^mences to 
head. The eggs are laid among the hairy spines of the clover 
head or beneath the l^racts around it, are yellowish to orange 
in color, of an oval shape, and about y-J-^ inch long. Upon 
hatching the maggot works its way into the open end of a floret, 
where it sucks the forming seed, and prevents the petals of the 
floret fi'om expanding, so that altliough some of the flowers in 
the head will bloom, the field as a whole does not l)lossom as 
usual. The maggot is footless, white to orange-red in color, 
and about one-tenth inch long when full grown. Upon becom- 
ing grown in late June and the first week of July the maggots 
enter the soil and just below the surface make tough, oval, silken 
cocoons, in which they pupate. The pupal stage lasts about 
* Diusyneura leguminicola Lintner. Family CecidomyidcF. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 



213 



three weeks or more, and the flies of the second generation appear 
in Central Illinois in late July and early August, being abundant 
as the second crop of clover heads appeal'. The eggs are laid 
in the clover heads and hatch in about three days, and the second 
generation of maggots do the worst damage to the seed in late 
August and early September, in the same manner as did the first 
generation. They become full grown by frost and hibernate 





Fig. 152. — The clover-flower midge (Dasyneura leguminicola): a, enlarged 
side view of female, with scales denuded, to show more clearly the struc- 
ture; b, head, more highly magnified, to show structure of the eye, 
palpi, and basal joints of antenna>; r, tip of ovipositor, highly magnified 
and showing at end of next to last joint the manner in which it is clothed 
with minute hairs; d, highly magnified antennal joints, their minute hairy 
clothing shown on the lower one; 2, a, larva enlarged, ventral view; 
b, head retracted, highly magnified, (.\fter Riley.) 



either as full-grown larva', in which case they pupate early the 
next spring, or pupate before frost and pass the winter as pupic in 
the soil. 

Control. — Fortunately this pest may be very readily controlled 
by adapting the methods of harvesting so as to destroy the devel- 
oping maggots. If clover is grown alone it should be cut early, 
before the maggots have become mature. This results in drying 
up the food plant and thus destroying the larvse and hastens the 
development of the second crop of clover heads, so that the midges 



214 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

of the second generation have but few green head.s in which to lay 
their eggs. Cutting need not be done until the field is fairly fresh 
with bloom, but shoidtl not be delayed until the flowers commence 
to wither. Wherc^ timothy and clover are grown together they 
should be pastured lightly or clipped l)ack in May, which will 
result in ])ringing both the first and second blooming after the 
greatest abundance of the midges. .Vs the midg(\s do not travel 
far, it would seem advisable to " prevent the sporadic heading of 
first-3'ear clover l)y mowing it back a few weeks after small grains 
have been harvested, at a time when growth is vigorous, but yet 
sufficiently early to permit considerable growth before frost sets in. 
Volunteer clover should always ]:)e cut, as it affords a rich nursery 
for all kinds of clover insects." — Folsoni. 



The Clover-seed Chalcid * 

Evidence accumulates that tlic slioitage of tlie clover-seed 
crop nia\' frecjuenth' be (kie to the larva of a little chalcis-fly which 

liollows out the ripen- 
ing seed, leaving it 
brown, l)nttle and 
hollow, so that the 
affected hulls are blown 
away with the chaff in 
threshing. As there is 
no evidence of the pest 
in the appearance of 
the heads, and as the 
worst affected seed are 
thus overlooked in 
thi-csliing. its work will 
oft(>n evade detection. 
If the seed crop is short it will l)e well to examine seed for the 
larvae; many of the seed will l)e found shriveled and misshapen; 
and frequently considerable numbers of the adults will issue from 
the seed soon after threshing. 

* Bruclioplmgns funehris Howard. Family CludrldidcB. 




I'i(i. 1."):^ — The clovor-sood clialcis {Brncliophnfjus 
fiinebris): adult foinalo, much cidargcd ; 
antenna of male at left, more i-nlargod. 
(After Webster, V. S. Dept. Agr.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO C].OVER 



215 



The adult is a small wasp-like fl}' oiie-twelftli to one-sixteenth 
inch long, black in color, and with four wings, the hind-wings very 
small and the fore-wings with but a single vein. It belongs to a 
family almost all of which are parasitic on other insects, and for 
many years it was thought to be a parasite of the clover-seed 
midge, until its true role was discovered. In recent years exam- 
inations of ripening heads from all parts of the country show that 
it is probably distributed wherever clover is grown and that from 
20 to 80 per cent of the seed is often destroyed. Both red and 
crimson clovers are attaclcod, wliilo alfalfa seed is not so badly 
injured. 




Via. 154:. — The clover-seed chalcis: a 
and head more enhirged; c, pupa 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



egg — highly magnified; b. larva 
-much enlarged. (.\fter Webster, 



Life History. — The winter Is passed b}- the fully grown larvae 
in seed on the ground. The adults emerge in the spring, the maxi- 
mum appearing about June 10th in central Illinois, according to 
Dr. Folsom, to whom we are indebted for the most careful study 
of the pest. The females deposit their eggs in the soft seed, just 
as the floret is withering, l)eing unable to penetrate the seed after 
it has hardened. The egg is whitish, al)out ^ J ^~ inch long, and 
with a peculiar tail-like appendage (Fig. 154). The maggot-like 
larva feeds upon the seed, gradually hollowing it out, and when full 
grown is about one-twelfth inch long, stout and footless, with a 
small head. The pupal stage is passed within the seed and a sec- 
ond generation of adults emerges al^out the middle of August. 



216 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

These lay their eggs in the second growth, and some of the adults 
from these appear the same season and the rest not until the fol- 
lowing year. There seem to be at least three generations a year in 
central Illinois, but the life history is complicated by the irregu- 
larity in the time of development, though the greatest numbers of 
adults appear about June 10th and August 10th, just as the clover- 
seed is green. 

Control. — No definite experiments have been made in the con- 
trol of this pest, but from the knowledge of the life history as 
given above there seems no doubt ])ut that the same measures as 
are employed against the clover-seed midge will secure immimity 
from serious injur}'. 

The Clover-seed Caterpillar * 

" In its ability to diminish the seed crop, this pest ranks with 
the seed-midge and the seed-chalcid. Attacking a clover head 
that is green or partly in bloom, the little caterpillar eats out a 




Fig. 155. — Clover-seed caterpillar {Enarmonia intersiinctana) : a, caterpillar, 
b, pupa; c, moth, all mucli onlarg;ed: d, moth natural size, (.\fter 
Osboni.) 

cavity in the head, destroying many of tlie unopened buds and 
some of the tender green seeds, and spoiling the head as a whole. 
When no young clover heads are at hand, the caterpillar feeds on 

* Enarmonia interstlnctana Clem. Family GraphoUthidcB. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 217 

tender green leaves at the crown of tlie plant." — Folsom. Red 
clover is the principal food plant, bnt white, alsike, and probably 
mammoth clovers are also affected. The published records show 
that it occurs in the northeastern States southwest to Missouri, 
but it doubtless occurs elsewhere where clover is grown, as it 
might readily be carried in hay. 

Life History. — The adult is a pretty little brown moth, with a 
wing expanse of two-fifths inch, with silvery markings as shown 
in Fig. 155, the most conspicuous marks forming a double crescent 
when the wings are closed ou the back. The moths appear about 
the end of May in central Illinois, or just as the clover is coming 
into bloom, being active in early evening, when the females lay 
their eggs in the heads. The egg is circular in shape, about Vino 
inch in diameter, yellowish-white in color, and hatches in five or 
six days. In first-year clover that has not headed and in second- 
year clover recently cut, the eggs are laid on j'oung stems and leaf- 
lets at the base of the plant, where the larva? stay. 

" Hatching usually at the base of a green clover-head; the 
larva eats into the head, destroying the green florets as it goes. 
A small green head is often destroyed entirely, l^efore it is many 
days old; a larger head is injured only locally at first, remaining 
green on one side, while the other and unaffected side may come 
into full bloom." Judging from the appearance of the head the 
work might l)e that of the seed-midge, but whereas it is hidden 
away in a single floret, this caterpillar makes a large dirty excava- 
tion involving many florets, and is readily found b}' tearing open 
the head. The caterpillar attacks the bases of the florets, includ- 
ing the semifluid ovules, but does not attack seeds which have 
hardened. '' Even when the direct injury is confined to a portion 
of the clover-head, the entire head is ruined, for it at length dries 
up and loses the rest of the florets, leaving only the dead and brown 
receptacle. Less conspicuous, though not inconsiderable, is the 
injury at the crown of the plant, done chiefly in September and 
October, by caterpillars of the same species feeding upon the 
leaves." — Folsom. The total injury varies greatly, but not infre- 
quently 20 per cent of the heads are infested, and in Iowa infesta- 



218 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

tion has sometimes been exceedingly severe. In any event, 
every head destroyed means the loss of more than one hundred 
seeds. 

The larvie become full grown in four to five weeks. The full 
grown caterpillar is about one-third inch long and varies in color 
from dirty-white tinged with green to orange, according to the 
food. The larva spins an oval white silken cocoon, two-fifths 
inch long, either in the head or at the surface of the grountl, 
which is more or less covered with bits of excrement and floral tis- 
sue. The pupa is one-fifth inch long, brown, with the thorax and 
wing-cases darker, and with two transverse rows of teeth on the 
back of the abdominal segments except the last, which bears six 
stout blackish hooks at the tip. The pupal stage lasts two to 
three weeks and a second generation of moths emerges about the 
third week of July (in central Illinois). The life cycle is repeated 
in the same manner and a third genei'ation of moths appears about 
September 1st. The larvae of the last bi'ood feed either in imma- 
ture clover-heads or at the crown of the plant. Most of them 
become full grown and transform to pupte, in which stage they 
hibernate over winter, while others become full grown, but fail to 
pupate and hibernate under rubbish. 

Control. — Cutting and storing the hay crop earl}- in June as 
advised for the clover-seed midge will kill the larva) while still 
in the heads. " The nay should l)c handled lightly and stacked 
or stored as soon as possible. Osborn and Gossard * have attested 
the value of this method, and have given these further recommenda- 
tions: (1) Cut volunteer clover in early June and dispose of the 
heads speedily; (2) do not allow clover to run for more than two 
years; (3) sow seed on land remote from old fields; (4) pasture 
clover in the fall of the first year; (5) plow an old clover-field 
under in October or November or in early spring, then harrow 
and roll. These practices operate at the same time against 
several other clover pests." — Folsom. 

* Osborn and Gassard, Insect Life, Vol. IV, p. 254; Bulletins 14 and 15, 
Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta.; 22d Report Entomological Society of Ontario, p. 74. 
Goseard, H. A., Bulletin 19, Iowa Agr. E.\p. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 



219 



The Clover-hay Worm * 

The clover-hay worm attacks stacked or stored clover, par- 
ticularly where it is held over a year or where placed on old hay, 
eating much of the lower layers and rendering it unfit for food. 




Fig. 15(3. — -Clover-hay worm, greatly enlarged. (After Folsom.) 



It has been known to be injurious from Kansas eastward, but 
occurs throughout most of North America, as well as parts of 
Europe, Asia, and Africa. 





Fig. 157. — The clover-hay worm moth, wings expanded (after Folsom) and 
at rest (after Pettit) — enlarged. 

" The larvffi attack the bottom of a clover stack to a height 
of 2 feet or more from the ground; similarly, in the Ijarn, they 
oc^ur next the floor. They interweave the hay with white silken 
webs, intermixed w^ith black grains of excrement. . . ; they 

* Hypsopygia costalis Fab. Family PyralididcE. 



220 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

reduce much of the hay to chaff, and their webs give the hay the 
appearance of being nioukly; in fact, such hay actually becomes 
mouldy if it has been lying near the ground. This hay is refused 
by horses and cattle and is fit only to be burnt. When the hay 
is removed, swarms of wriggling brown caterpillars are left." 
The work of the catei pillars is usually noticed in late winter and 
spring. 

Life History. — -The moths appear from the middle of June 
until early July in the Northern States and most of the first 
generation have disappeared by the end of July. The moths 
have a wing expanse just under an inch, with silky wings, tinged 
with purplish above, nuirgined with orange and fringed with 
golden yellow. On each side of the fore-wings are two large, 
golden spots which tlivide the anterior margin into thirds and 
continue backward as narrow lilac lines (Fig. 157). The hind- 
wings are marked by two transverse, wavy, straw-colored lines. 

As soon as some clover-hay is found the female deposits her 
eggs and the catei'pillars feed upon it. When full grown they 
are about three-ciuarters inch long, of a dull-brown color. The 
segments are divided by a transverse groove, and each bears 
several shining areas, with a fine white hair in each. White 
silken cocoons, one-half inch long, covered with bits of hay 
and excrement, are made by the larvie in the hay or in cracks 
and crevices of the barn, in which tiiey transform to pupie, which 
are of a honey-yellow color, with the parts clearly defined by the 
darker color of the sutures. The moths of the second brood 
emerge from the middle of August until September 1st, but may 
be found Hying until late October. Caterpillars of all sizes may 
be found in l)arns thi'oughout the winter and pupate in the spring. 

Control. — Usually no serious injury is done except where 
clover-hay is kept over the second year or longer. When it is 
fed out each spring, before the next crop is harvested, there is 
no food for the young caterpillars, and they perish before the 
new crop comes in. Consequently mows should be cleaned 
out each spring. New clover-hay should never be placed on 
top of old hay, and stacks shoidd be placed at some little distance 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CLOVER 221 

from the old stacks if possible. Burn up the refuse from old 
stacks, or what remains in the bottom of the mow. Stacks 
should be raised above the ground on a foundation of logs or 
rails, so as to keep the bottom as dr}' and cool a.s possible, as the 
caterpillars love warmth and moisture. It has been found that 
salting the hay for 2 or 3 feet at the l)ottom will prcn^ent injury, 
and many farmers salt their clover-hay, using about two quarts 
of salt to the ton. 



CHAPTER XTI 

INSFX'TS ix.iritiors to tobacco* 



The Tobacco Flea-beetle f 

The To]:)ao('o Flea-bcetlc is one of the important pests of that 
plant throughout the Middle States, being particularly injurious 
to young plants. The beetles damage the leaves by eating small 




Fig. 158. — Tobacco flea-l)eetle {Epitrix parvula): a, adult beetle; h, larva, 
lateral view; c, head of larva; d, posterior leg of same; e, anal segment, 
dorsal view.; /, pupa — a, b,f, enlarged alwut fifteen times; c, d, c, inore 
enlarged, (.\ftcr Chittenden, U. .S. Dept. Agr.) 

holes in the upper or under surfaces, or clear through them, so 
that when Ijadly eaten the leaves look as if they had been peppered 
with shot. The little ])ectles which do this damage are hardly 

*See L. O. Howard, Farmers' Bulletin 120, U. 8. Dept. Agr., The Prin- 
cipal In-sects Affecting the Tobacco Plant. A. C. Morgan, Circular 123, 
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr; Yearlwok, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1910, 
pp. 281-296. 

t Epitrix parvula Fab. Family Chrysomelida. 

222 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO 



223 



more than one-twcnticth inch long, 
a dark band across the wing-covers, 
l:)ut little damage, but they soon 
increase in numbers, so that they 
swarm over the leaves and injure 
them badly. Similar injury is done 
to potato, egg-plant, and tomato, 
and the beetles also feed on horse- 
nettle, nightshade, and Jamestown 
weed. 

Life History. — The eggs are laid 
in the soil and the larvte feed upon 
the roots of common weeds, such 
as the nightshade and Jamestown 
weed. The larva is delicate, thread- 
like and white, except the yellow- 
ish head, and about one-eighth 
inch long. It pupates in the soil. 
When the beetles become very nu- 
merous the larva" sometimes de- 
velop on the roots of tobacco, l)ut 
rarely do serious damage. The 
life history has not been deter- 
mined exactly, but the full life 
cycle seems to occupy about a 
month, so that there are probably 
several generations in a year. 

Control. — Inasnuich as the larvse 
develop on the roots of the weeds 
mentioned, it is evident that they 
should be kept down by thorough 
cultivation. Where the beetles ap- 
pear, the plants should be sprayed 
or dusted with Paris green, or 
probably better, arsenate of lead, 
the same as for the horn-worm. 



light brown in color, with 
A few of them could do 




Fig. 159. — Tobacco leaves 
damaged tiy EpitrLv par- 
vula. (After Howard, U. 
S. Dept. Agr.) 

Dipping the plants in arse- 



224 INSECT PESTS UF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

nate of lead, 1 poiincl to 10 gallons of water, just as they are 
set, has been found to afford very satisfactory protection in 
Connecticut. 

The Tobacco Stalk-worm ■^■ 

Professor W. ( i. Johnson found this sjjecies, also known as 
the Corn-root \\ Cbworni, to l)e a serious jjest to growing tobacco- 
plants in southern Maryland, where it seems to have l)een a 
tobacco pest for at least, fifteen years, and it has also been noted 
in Delawaic. 

The Itijiiri/. -The iiijiiiy to tobacco is described by Professor 
Johnson as follows: " Tiie uninjured tobacco had a leaf-spread 
of from ten to twel\-e inches. A few rods ])eyon(b where the soil 
was not so gravelly and bettei-, we found the larva' had literally 
destroyed the first and second plantings, and weic at work upon 
the third, danuiging it severely, although the gi'ound had been 
I'eplanted before the last planting. Here and thei'e was a young 
plant just Ix'ginning to wilt, and invariably we found the larva at 
woi'k either in the stalk or at the base of the plant just below the 
surface of the gi'ound. So far as I could ascertain the attack is 
always at the surface or just below. In many instances the 
larvae had hollowed out the stalks from the base of the roots to 
the branches of the fii'st leaves. Many plants were gnawed 
irregularly arountl the stalk l)elow the surface, and some, in fact, 
were completely cut off at the sui'face, the insect always working 
fi'om below. In the great nuijority of cases the larx'a' wei'e fountl 
in a snuill mass of web near the })lant, antl sometimes within 
it. In one plant, less than six inches high, we found four larvte 
within the stalk, but as a vn\v only a single one was pi'esent." 

Professor Johnson concluded " (1) that it is most likely to 
occur over local areas in tobacco following timothy or grass; 
(2) that the character of the Noil has little or nothing to do 
with its ravages; (8) that the attack upon corn is also a frecpient 
occurrem'e in the same section; especially wiien following grass 
or timothy." 

* Cranibu-s caliginosellu-s Clem. Family ('r<imbid(C. Sec p. 161 and 
Bull. 20, II. s., Div". Ent., U. S. Dcpt. Agr., pp. It!) 101, 1899. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO 



225 



Remedies. — He recommended " (1) that growers of tobacco 
avoid planting upon grass or timothy sod; (2) that where grass 
land is plowed down it would be well to put it in wheat, following 
with clover, before tobacco. If desirable, corn could follow 
the grass and the land could be seeded in crimson clover at the 
last working. This would serve a twofold object by revealing 
the exact location of larvse in the area under cultivation by their 
attack upon corn, when they could be destroyed largely by 
frequent harrowing and rolling, and by affording a most excellent 
soil crop to turn down the following spring, which would be a 
decided advantage to the tobacco; that if it is found necessary 
to have tobacco following grass, it should be l^roken in the sjDring 
as early as possible, and frequently rolled and harrowed, at the 
same time delaying the setting of the plants as long as possible 
in order to destroy and starve the larvse within the ground." 

The Spined Tobacco-bug * 

Professor H. Garman has found a small bug, which he has 
termed the Spined Tobacco-bug, doing more or less injury to plants 




Fig. 160. — The spined tol)acco-hug {Euschistus variolarius) , nymph at left; 
adult at right — enlarged, (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



in Kentucky, and as this insect is widely distributed throughout the 
country, it probably does more or less damage elsewhere, though 
never a serious pest. Concerning its work, he saj^s: '' Occa- 



* Euschistus punctipes Say {variolarius Pal. Beauv.). 
idee. See Bulletin No. 66, Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 33. 



Family Pentatom- 



226 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

sional plants in tobacco-fu'kls arc at times ol)served to have become 
suddenly wilted, the leaves hanging limj), much as if the stalk had 
been severed. After a time they recover again, and, beyond a 
temporary check on their growth, appear to have suffered but 
little injury. If such plants are searched carefully while still 
wilted, a fiat, brown bug with each side of the body produced into 
an angle, or sharp spine, will be found upon the stalk along the 
base of the leaves. It is very shy and keeps out of sight, hence any 
brisk movement on the injured plants is likely to cause it to drop to 
the ground and conceal itself." These insects are true bugs, suck- 
ing their food through a beak, which is bent under the body 
between the legs when not in use. They are about half an inch long, 
of a drab color above and greenish or yellowish below. Usually 
only one bug is found on a plant, so that the best way to prevent 
the injury is to pick them from the plants, and keep down such 
weeds as thistles and mulleins, upon which such insects feed, in 
the adjoining fields. 

The Suck-fly * 

One of the worst tobacco pests in many parts of Florida is a 
little bug called by the planters the " suck-fly," which fortunately 
does not seem to have become a pest elsewhere. They insert thcii- 
little beaks into the tissue of the leaf and suck the juices, causing 
the leaf to become yellowish and wilted, and cracking older leavers 
so that they become ragged. As a result it is exceedingly difficult, 
if not impossible, to properly cure badly infested leaves. 

JAfe History. — The adult is a snudl bug about one-eighth inch 
long, with rather long yellowish-green legs. The upper surface is 
black, except the front margin and a central stripe of yellow on the 
pro-thorax, while the under side is greenish. The " flies " become 
numerous enough to be injurious early in June, usually being 
noticed first in one corner of a field near where they have hiber- 
nated. They rarely do serious damage to the first crop, but the 
second crop and late tobacco is sometimes entirely destroyed. 
They have also been noted in the Gulf States as injuiing tomatoes. 

* Dicyphus tninimus Uhler. Family Capsidw. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO 



227 



The eggs are deposited singly in the tissues of the leaf and hatch 
in about four clays. The young nymphs feed on the foliage, as do 
the adults, and after moulting four times transform to adults about 
eleven days later. Thus it requires but about a fortnight for the 




"^ 



Fro. If)!. — The suck-fly (Dici/plnis 7))iriit»iis): a. nowly hatched; b, second 
stage; c, nymph; d, aduH : e. head and hcak from side — enlarged. 
(After Howard. U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



development of a brood, so that the pest multiplies very rapidly 
and in a few weeks becomes so numerous that hundreds are fountl 
on a single leaf and seribus injury is inevitable. 

The weather plays an important part in the control of this 
pest, as many of the insects become stuck to the stickv exudation 



228 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

given off by the glandular hairs of the tobacco, and if there be fre- 
quent rains, this is washed off and the insects develop unimpeded. 
The bugs are found in late fall until frost, but the exact number of 
generations has not been determined. They evidently hibernate 
in or near the tobacco field. 

Control. — Professor A. L. Quaintance, who experimented with 
remedies in Florida, has found, curiously enough, that the best 
insecticide against this pest is its own food, tobacco. A solution 
of concentrated nicotine, dilutcnl with sixty parts of water, was 
found very effective when sprayed upon the bugs. It should be 
applied with a bent-necked nozzle which will throw a fine spray 
upon both surfaces of the leaves, as most of the young are on the 
lower surface. Home-made tobacco decoction (page 55) was 
also used, but did not prove as satisfactory. The spraying should 
be done early in the day, when the adult bugs are sluggish and do 
not fly readih'. Infested areas should be sprayed when the 
pest first makes its appearance so as to prevent multiplication 
and spread. Thoi'ough cleaning vip of rubbish and destruction of 
the old stalks in the fall will l)e of service against this as well as 
other tol)acco pests. A few plants set early in the spring would 
probably attract the hibernating l^ugs as they emerge, so that 
they might be readily killed upon them. 

The Hornworms or Tobacco-worms * 

Of all the insects feeding upon tobacco, the Hornworms are 
the most widely injurious and therefore best known. The cater- 
pillars of two species of moths are commonly included under thig 
popular name, both species occurring throughout the tobacco- 
growing States, the northern tobacco-woi"m lieing more common 
in the North and the southern tobacco-worm moi'c common in the 
South. The flifferences in the adult moths may be readily appre- 
ciated from Figs. 162 and 163, the southern form being darker and 
with brighter orange spots on the abdomen, and the white lines on 

* Phlegetftontiiis quiyiquetnncvhttd Haworth (Northern), and P. sexta 
Johanssen (Soiithorn). Family Sphimfithr. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO 



229 



the hind-wings being less distinct. The larvae of both species 
commonly attack tomato vines and are commonly called tomato 
worms where tobacco is not grown. 

Life History. — The pupa^" pass the winter several inches below 
the surface of the soil and from them the moths emerge in May and 




Yio. 102. — Northern tobacco-worm, or " hornworm " {Phlegethontius qiiiitque- 
maculala): «, adult moth; 6, full-grown larva; c, pupa — natural size. 
(After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



June, according to the latitude and season. The females deposit 
their eggs singly, upon the lower surfaces of the leaves, from which 
the little caterpillars hatch in from four to eight days. The char- 
acteristic work of the larvae is too well known to every tol^acco 
grower to necessitate description. The caterpillars become full 
grown in about three weeks, during which time the}' moult some 
five times. The full grown larvae are three to four inches long, of 



230 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

a dark green color with white stripes on the side of the body, those 
of the northern species having a V-shape, while those of the south- 
ern species being simple oblique hands. At the tip of the abdomen 
is a stout horn, from which is derived the name of hornworm, 
which in the northern species is l)lack and in the southern is red. 
The pupa are formed in the soil, are dark In-own, about two inches 




Fig, 16;^. — Southern tobacco-worm (Phleyctliontius sexta): a, adult moth; 
b, full-grown larva; r, pupa — natural size. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. 
Agr.) 



long, and have a peculiar handle-like process, the sheath of the 
prol)oscis, wliich somewhat resembles a hoin and which may 
account for the name of " hornblowers," commonl}' given them in 
Mar^-land and \'irginia. Tlie jiupal stage lasts al)out three weeks, 
when the adults emerge, the whole life cycle re([uiring from six to 
eight weeks. Usually two generations occur in a season through- 
out most of the tobacco belt, but in the North there seems to be 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBAC:CO 



231 




Fig. 164.— Hibernation of southern tobacco-worm; c, pupa in hibernating 
cell in soil, at the depth of which pupation u.sually takes place in the 
stiffer soils; a, cross-section of pupal cell viewed from below; b, pupal 
cell showing entrance hole of larva— two-third natural size. (After 
A. C. Morgan, V. S. Dept. Agr.) 



232 IXSI'X'T TESTS OF FARM, CARDEN AND ORCHARD 

but one gciu'i'iitioii, and in tlii-" (lull" Slates there may be three 
gcncration.s. Occasionally the worms are overlooked in cutting 
the tobacco and are carried into tlie l)arn, where they may do 
considerable injury even after the tobacco is partially dry. 

Control. — The most common method of control is hand-pick- 
ing, usually termed " worming." In seasons when the worms are 
not overabundant this may be the most practical method of con- 
trol, but it is both tiresome and expensive, and the planter has no 
means of predicting whether the worms will be more or less abun- 




Fui. Itif). — Soutliprn tohaocn-worm killed by fungus. (After Carman.) 

dant. Large Hocks of turkeys driven through the fields wall aid 
most efficiently in tiiis woi'k. 

In many sections the worms are now controlled by spraying 
or dusting with Paris green or arsenate of lead. More or less popu- 
lar prejudice against the use of arsenicals has existed, as it was 
thought the tobacco might be poisonous to the consumer. Careful 
chemical examinations have shown, however, that the amount 
left on the foliage after three sprayings would be far too small to 
have any deleterious effect. The same prejudice formerly existed 
against the use of arsenicals on potatoes, cabbage and other crops, 
but experience has shown it to be unwarranted. A real objection 
to the use of Paris green is that it sometimes slightly burns the 
foliage, so that arsenate of lead ^^ ill doubtless be found preferable. 




INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO 233 

By spraying three times, the worms may usually be entirely con- 
tro led at much less expense than by hand-picking. The time of 
the spraying will depend upon the latitude and season, but it 
should be applied as soon as each brood of young caterpillars 
appears. Usually one spraying 
should be given about July 1st, 
a second early in August, and 
another in about two weeks to 
cheek the work of the second 
brood, which is the most inju- 
rious. One pound of Paris green Fig. 166.— Southern tobacco-worm 
to 160 gallons of water is suf- with cocoons of parasite. (After 

ficient, and it should never be 

used stronger than 1 pound to 125 gallons. Arsenate of lead may 

be used at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds to 50 gallons or dusted on as 

a powder. These treatments will also aid in controlling the bud 

worms. 

A method of killing the adult moths has been practiced by 
many planters with satisfactory results. It consists of poisoning 
the flowers of the Jamestown weed {Datura stramonium) with a 
sweetened cobalt solution. The flowers are placed around the 
fields in the evening, being set upright in holes in horizontal slats, 
or supported by sticks. The cobalt solution is then introduced 
into them by means of a quill, or dropper. It is composed of: 
cobalt, 1 ounce; molasses, one-fourth pint; and water, 1 pint. In 
their search for flowers the moths will be attracted by the odor of 
molasses and the cobalt of the solution will poison them, and thus 
prevent the female from laying some 200 eggs toward another 
brood of worms. 

As the pupa3 hibernate in the soil it is evident that deep plowing 
and thorough harrowing in late fall and winter of land which has 
been in tobacco will result in destroying many of them. The 
destruction of the stalks and cleaning up of refuse leaves after the 
crop has been removed is also of importance, as the larvae may con- 
tinue to feed in the field and become full grown and pupate 
where by the destruction of their food this might be prevented. 



234 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Xdtural Enemies. — ^ ery frequently worms arc fouiul covered 
'.vitli what seem to l)e small, white eggs. These are not eggs, how- 
evei', hut arc the small silken cocoons of a little wasp-like parasite 
(ApaiUeles congregatus) whose larva3 feed internally upon the 
juices of the worm and thus ultimately kill it before it transforms 
to a pupa. Such parasitized worms should n(>ver l)e desd'oycd, 
as the parasites are of more value than the damage the worm 
might do. Ver}^ frequently the caterpillars are attacked !)>• a l)ac- 
terial disease which causes thcm'to turn dark and become shi-unkcn 
and flaccid. 

The Budworms * 

Two caterpillars of the same genus commonly attack the l)ud 
of tobacco and have been distinguished by Dr. L. 0. Howard as 
the true bud worm and false bud worm, the latter being the same 
as the well-known cotton l)oll\vorm and corn ear-worm. 




Fig. 167. — The tnie hiuhvorm (Chloridea vircsccns): n, adult iiuitli; h, full- 
grown larva, from side; c, same, from above; d, seed-pod bored into by 
larva; e, pupa — natural size. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



" The true budworm {Chloridea virescens) occurs in the more 
southern portions of the tobacco-growing regions," says Dr. How- 
ard, t " ])ut has not been noted in tobacco-fields north of Maryland. 
Tlie adult insect is a small gi-eenish moth, well illustrated in 
Fig. 1G7. The larva or cat(M-pillar of this moth, also illustrated, is 

* Chloridea rircsccn.s Fal)., and Ilelioiliis obsalcla Fab. ¥ami\y Xuctuidcr. 
_ t Fanners' Bulletin 120, U. S. Dept. Agr. The Principal Insects Affecting 
the Tobacco Plant. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO 



235 



nearly always found in the bud of the tobacco-plant about the 
time the plant is ready to top. In some seasons they occur in 
large numbers and damage the tobacco considerably. In the 
early part of the season, as a general thing, but few of them are 
found, and in ordinary seasons they are not especially' noticed 
duriiig the early " worming " of the tobacco. In August they 
begin to be more abun- 
dant, and generally 
leave the plant about 
the end of the month, 
entering the ground, 
transforming to pupa) 
and issuing as moths 
toward the end of Sep- 
tember. These dates 
are for Virginia, but 
hold reasonably- well 
as far south as Missis- 
sippi. The greatest 
damage done b}* tliis 
insect is by the August 
brood, when it enters 
the rolled-up leaves or 
bud of the plant. In 
September and October 
the next generation of 
caterpillars is found 
boring into the seed- 
pod and occasionally 
into the flower-stem. . 
tion enter the ground 




Fig. 168. — Flase bvidworm or cotton Ijollwonn 
(Heliothis obsoleta): «, adult moth; h, dark 
full-grown larva; c, light-colored full-grown 
larva; d, pupa — natural size, (After How- 
ard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



. The caterpillars of the last fall genera- 
and hibernate as pupic. The insect has 
several other food-plants aside from cotton, but its most. abun- 
dant food in the South is the weed known as ground cherry 
{Phi/sdiis viscosa)." The life history of this species is very 
similar, therefore, to the fals(> l)U(hvoi-m or bollworm. 

The corn ear-worm (see page LSI) is usually found attacking 



236 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

tobacco in Virginia and Kentucky only late in the season after 
corn has commenced to harden. It then bores into the buds, seed- 
pods, and flower-stalks, in the same manner as the last species. In 
Florida, however. Professor A. L. Quaintance states that its worst 
injury is done early in the season before corn or cotton arc available, 
the eggs being laid in the bud an 1 the young larva:> feeding on the 




Fig. 169. — Larva of false hiidworm {HeliotluH obnolctAi), showing work on 
secd-capsulcs of tol)acco plant. (After Quaintance.) 

unfolded leaves, doing very sciious injur.\. In l-'iorida the corn 
ear-worm or false budworni is more couunon than tiie former 
species. 

Control. — Poi.soned corn-meal has been found to be a satisfac- 
tory remedy for both species when they bore into the bud. Mix a 
half teaspoonful of Paris green into a quart of finely ground corn- 
mea' and sprinkle into the ])uds from a can perforated like a pepper 



INSECTS IXJURIOUH T(3 TOBACCO 



237 



can. This should be applietl frequently, especially after heavy 
rains. Large buds should be opened and a pinch of the poison 
placed within. When spraying or dusting with an arsenical is 
practiced against the hornworms it will aid in the control of the 
budworms, and may be advisable for them alone where injury is 
serious. Powdered arsenate of lead has been used against both 
these insects with considerable success and will doubtless obviate 
the burning which has been experienced when using Paris green 
with corn-meal. When the injury by the false budworm occurs 
only late in the season, it would seem that the moths might be 
attracted to a trap crop of late corn in the same manner as cotton 
is protected from it (page 257) . 

The Tobacco Leaf-miner * 

The larva of a small moth has Ix'come (juite injurious in parts 
of Xoi-th Carolina and Florida l)y mining the inside of the leaf, 




Fig. 170. — Tobacco leaf-miner or split-worm, adult moth above; larva below 
at right; pupa below at left, with side view of enlarge 1 anal segment — all 
enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



and is thus known as the Tobacco Leaf-miner. This insect occurs 
in other parts of the country, but has become injurious only in the 
States named and in recent years. The injury is done by the 



* PhthorimcF operciilella Zell. Family Tineidce. 



238 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



larvae eating out iri-egular palclics of the tissue in the lea\-es, leav- 
ing only the upper and lower surfaces, the lower leaves being 
infest {•( I the woi'st. The leav(\s arc ren- 
dered unfit for wrappers, splitt ng and 
tearing very easily on aecount of th(^se 
blotches. A larva does not eonfine its 
work to one plac(>, but makes several 
mines, and a single larva may thus destroy 
the value of a leaf for wrapping purposes. 
This migratory habit is of considerable 
importance, as in leaving the old and in 
nuUving new ' mines the larviT? must 
necessarily eat a certain amount of the 
surfac(> of the leaf, and can thus l^e killed 
b}^ an arsenical spray. The life history of 
the insect is not completely known, but as 
(jnly about twenty days are I'CMjuired for 
all its transformations, several broods 
probably occur during a season. The 
original food-plant of this pest has been 
found to be the common horse- or bull- 
nettle (Solanuin carolinense), which fact 
further emphasizes the caution already 
given, to k(^ep all weeds carefully cut 
down around the tobacco-field, especially 
those nearly related to tobacco botanical!)'. 
Many plantei-s destroy the larvie by simply 
crushing them with the hand, and this can 
l)e done quite I'apidly, and if done before 
the mines become numerous should be 
sufficient to check the injury. Where 
spraying with Paris green is practised 
against the hornworm it should l)e .sufficient to destroy most of 
the miners, as, if the leaf is thoi-oughly coated with poison, they 
would get a fatal dose in starting a new mine. 




Fig. 171.— Work of 
split-worm — n"(liu'c<l. 
(After Huwanl, V. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO 



239 



The Cigarette-beetle * 

The most serious pest of dried tobacco is the httle brown 
Cigarette-beeth^, which also attacks various (h-ugs and stored 
food products. The Ix'etk' is but one-sixteenth inch long, of a 
brownish color, and with the pro-thorax bent down so that the 
head is obscured as if under a hood. 

'' Working as it does in all kinds of cured tobacco and living 
in this substance during all the stages of its existence," says 
Dr. L. O. Howard, "it damages cigarettes and cigars principally 
by boring out of them, making round holes in the wrai)pers so 
that they will not draw. Leaf tobacco is injured for wrapping 







CL b O (f^ 

Fig. 172. — The cigarette-beetle: «, larva; h, pupa; c, adult; d, side view (if 
adult; e, antenna — all greatly enlarged; e, still more enlarged. (After 
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

purposes by being punctured with holes made both by the larvtc 
and beetles, and fillers and finecut are injured by the reduction 
of their substance l)y the actual amount consumed by the larviF." 
" The cigarette-beetle is practically cosmopolitan, and prolxibly 
occurs in most tobacco factories in the Southern States, as well 
as in most wholesale drug stores. In the far South this insect 
multiplies rapidly throughout the greater part of the year, and 
its development is practically continuous in artificially warmed 
factories farther north." 

Life Ehtorn. — In heated factories the insect may be found in 
all stages throughout the year. Otherwise it seems to pass the 
winter months in thi^ larval stat(\ The larva is slightly larger 

* Lasioderma serricorne Fab. Family Ptinida. 



240 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

than the beetle and covered with hair as shown in Fig. 172. When 
full grown it spins a compact silky cocoon covered with bits of 
whatever it is breeding in and in it ti'ansfornis to the pupa. In a 
warm room the entire life cycl(> has Ix'cn passed in forty-seven 
days, and it seems probable that in the District of Columbia, 
there are two generations a year. Tlic life is undoubtedly inti- 
mately related to the moisture and temperature conditions under 
which it lives. 

Control. — ^^']len a factoiy or storehouse has l)ecome badly 
infested a thorough cleaning is the (ii-st step in the control of 
the pest, as tobacco fragments and dust are usually present every- 
where and ideal conditions for the nudtiplication of the pest are 
afforded. 

Infested tobacco should Ix' oj)en(Ml up. if packed tightly, 
placed in tight boxes or in a tight room and exposed to the fumes 
of carbon bisulfide, using it the same as for grain insects (seepage 
57). The (juantity used will d<'pend upon the tightness of the 
enclosure, the way in which the tobacco is packed, and the tem- 
perature. One pound to every 200 cubic feet will usually be ample. 
In factories where the beetle is abundant the tobacco should be 
steamed before use, which will kill all stages of the insect. Loose 
tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes, should not be left exposed to the 
beetles, but should be covered up or placed in tight receptacles 
to prevent their access. Badly infested factories and storehouses 
may ))e fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas (see page 57). 

Several otlier insects are moi-(> or less serious pests of tobacco 
in certain parts of the count r\' or untler local conditions. The 
Tobacco Thrips * has caused consideralile loss to growers of 
wrapper tol)acco in Morida wiiei-e it is grown under shade. 

* Euthrips nicoUin'uc llimls. Ortlcr Tliijsanoptcrci. Si-e A\'. A. Hooker, 
Bulletin 65, Circular 08. Bureau of I'^ntomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



CHAPTER XIII 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON * 

Plant-lice f 

With the formation of the first true leaves of cotton, winged 
aphides or plant-Hce appear in large numbers on the under side 
and on the terminals, the " buds " of the plants often being black 
with them. Almost all of them are the common greenish Melon- 
aphis X (see page 3S3), which infests melons later in the season. 
It is evident, therefore, that the practice of planting cotton 
between rows of melons is undesii-able. The aphides migrate 
to the cotton while it is young from various common weeds upon 
which they have passed the winter. 

Another species, known as the Bur-clover Aphis § occurs on 
cotton at about the same time and is not readily distinguishable 
from the previous species, b\it is darker and has a shining reddish 
or brownish-lDlack coloi-. 

In cold weather these plant-lice often cause considerable 
injury to the young plants, and greatly retard their development, 
since they multiply very rapidly and feed mostly on the growing 
terminals. If there be a few warm days, however, hordes of 
small hymenopterous parasites appear and in a few days often 
completely rid the plants of the pest. 

Control. — Although these aphides may be destroyed by spray- 
ing with kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, or tobacco water, 

* See Hunter and Hinds, The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil, Bulletin 51, 
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Quaintance and Brues, The Cotton 
Bollworm, Bulletin 50, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Sanderson, 
Miscellaneous Cotton Insects of Texas, Bulletin 57, Bureau of Entomology, 
Farmers' Bulletin 223, U. S. Dept. Agr. 

t Family AphididcF. X ■^pM-'^ gossypii Glov. 

§ Aphis medicoginis Koch. 

— 241 



242 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




J'Ki. 17;}. The cotton worm (Alnhanxi nrqllUtrm): young and full-grown 
larvu- or worms, pupa, cocoons in folded leaves, .-md moths, at rest, and 
with witii;s expanded —tliree-t'ourl lis n.itura! size. (.Vt'ler Comstock.j 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 



243 



yet as a rule their use on any considerable scale will hartlly be 
profitable. Keeping the fields clear of weeds by fall and winter 
plowing will undoubtedly have a beneficial effect in reducing 
the numbers of aphides and in most cases will be the only treat- 
ment necessary. 

The Cotton Worm * 

Until the advent of the boll w^eevil, the cotton worm was 
much the most serious insect pest of cotton. Since then, however, 
its importance has been rather overshadowed in the mind of the 




Fig. 174. — Pimpln co7}qnisitor, one of the principal parasites of the cotton- 
cat erpiUar: o, larvae enlarged; b, head of same still more enlarged; 
c, pupa; d. adult female enlarged; e, f, end of abdomen of adult male, 
still more enlarged. (From Fourth Rept. U. S. Entom. Comm.) 

planter by the onslaught of the invading Mexican pest and where 
the boll weevil is aljundant the stripping of the late foliage by 
the cotton worm reall}' aids in the control of tlie weevil, as will 
be explained later. 

Life History. — During the winter months the adult moth 
hibernates in the most southern portion of the cotton-belt, in the 
rank wire-grass occurring in the more thickl}' timbered regions. 
Only a few of these survive, Ijut they are very capable ancestors. 
In early iMaich they lay eggs upon volunteer cotton when it is 

* Alabama arg'dlacea Hubn. Family Xoctuidce. 



244 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

only an inch or two high. The .eggs are laid singly, usually upon 
the under surface of the leaves near the top of the plant, and about 
500 are laid by each female. The egg is of a flattened convex 
shape, bluish-green in color, and with prominent ridges converging 
to the apex. In midsummer the eggs hatch in three or four days, 
but in spring and autumn a much longer time is required. The 
young larvse are a pale yellow color, but soon assume a greenish 
tinge, and are marked with dark spots which become more dis- 
tinct after the first moult, when they become marked like the full- 




FiG. 175. — Cotton-worm egg parasite {Trichogramma pretiosa): a, adult 
female, greatly enlarged; b, ovipositor; c, female antenna; d, male 
antenna. (From Fourth Kept. U. S. Entom. Comm.) 

grown caterpillars, being more or loss striped with black. During 
the early season the greenish caterpillars predominate, but later 
the black stripes become heavier and the darker forms prevail. 
The appetites of these caterpillars arc only too well known to 
the cotton-grower. At fii'st they ai'c content with eating only 
the under surfaces of the leaves, occasionally jjierciug through. 
Then the leaves commence to look ragged, and when they become 
scarce the tender twigs and buds are attacked, ^\■hen they are 
excessively abundant the larvse develop cannabalistic tendencies, 
like the boll worms, and often feed upon the weaker caterpillars. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 245 

The larvae become full grown in from one to three weeks, during 
which time they moult some five times. 

When mature the caterpillar crawls into a folded leaf, which is 
often so eaten away that the pupa hangs exposed, and there 
spins around it a thin silken cocoon and transforms to the pupa, 
in which state the insect remains dormant for from one to four 
weeks, when it emerges as an adult moth. 

The moth is a dull olive-gra}' color with a wing expanse of 
about 1^ inches, which sometimes have a purplish lustre, and which 
are marked with darker lines as shown in Fig. 173. Like most of 
the owlet moths it flies only after sunset, but unlike them, it is 
not confined to the nectar of flowers for food, as its mouth is 
peculiarly adapted to piercing the skin of ripe fruit and feeding 
upon its juices. The moths are strong fliers, those of the later 
broods being frequently found as far north as Canada. 

The first two generations develop rapidly and in the extreme 
South the moths emerge by early April and are carried north- 
ward by the prevailing winds. Eggs deposited by them give 
rise to a brood of moths which in turn fly further northward, 
and thus the worms are gradual!}' found throughout the whole 
cotton belt, though with a considerable confusion between 
the various generations. At least seven generations occur 
on the Gulf Coast, and three at the northern limit of the 
species. Considering the number of eggs laid by each female 
and this number of generations, it may be readily perceived how 
such immense numbers of the caterpillars may arise by the latter 
part of the season, in a region where practically none remain 
over winter. If none was killed, the progeny of a single moth 
after four generations would amount to over 300,000,000,000 
individuals, or if placed end to end, the third generation would 
be enough to encircle the earth at the equator over four times. 

Enemies. — It is thus very fortunate that there are many 
deadly enemies of the cotton worms, which commence their war- 
fare upon them with their first appearance in spring and continue 
it with increasing ardor throughout the season. One of the most 
effective of these is a minute little insect, Trichogramma pretiqsa^ 



240 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

which develops within the eggs. Mr. H. G. Hubbard once 
observed that in Florida from 75 to 90 per cent of the fourth 
brood of eggs were destroyed by this parasite, while only three 
or four eggs in a hundred escaped in the sixth brood. Another 
of the most useful parasites, Pimpla conquisitor, was noticed as 
early as 1847 to destroy nearly all of the pupae of the last brood. 
The eggs of the Pimpla are laid upon the caterpillar, and the 
maggots enter the worm and feed upon its juices. It changes 
to a pupa as usual, but the pupa soon dies, and large numbers 
are thus kilUnl. Several similar parasites ])rey upon the cotton 
worm, and it is to be regretted that we know of no way of encourag- 
ing their valuable work. The common insectivorous birds eat 
large numbers of the worms, especially when the}' are scarce 
in early spring, and they should be protected by enacting and 
enforcing most stringent laws against their wanton destruction' 

Control. — The most commonly used and effective remedy is 
to dust the plants with Paris green. Dusting machines drawn 
by a team which will covei' four rows at once are in connnon use. 
The dust may be applied with any of the powder guns, but it is 
most commonly applied to two rows at once by means of bags 
fastened at the ends of a pole and carried by a man on horseback, 
who can thus dust 15 to 20 acres per da}-. These sacks are about 
10 inches long by 4 inches in diameter, open the whole length 
on one side and fii'mly seweil at the ends. Eight-ounce ()snal)urg 
is the best cloth for the ])urpose. A strip of oak or sti'ong wood 
about 1^X2 inches, and 5 feet long, has a 1-inch hole bored 
through it 5 inches from each end, and to this the sack is tacked, 
fastening one of the edges of the opening to each of the narrow 
sides of the pole. The sacks are filled through the holes in the pole. 
When freshly filled a slight jarring will shake out a sufficient 
amount of the poison, but when nearly empty the pole should 
be frequently and sharply struck with a short stick or spaces 
will be missed. The poison has been found most effective with- 
out the admixture of flour, but if it is used, lighter cloth should 
be used for the sacks. 

Besides the general use of Paris green there have Ijecn several 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 247 

important factoi-s which have aided in the control of the cotton 
worm, so that it is by no means as much of an eneni}' of the cotton 
crop as formerly. Among the most important of these, both 
from an entomological and general agricultural standpoint, is 
the diversification and rotation of crops, now coming to be more 
and more practiced by the progressive agriculturists of the South. 
This alone largely prevents the rapid spread of the pest. Since 
the seed has become such a valuable product of cotton, smaller 
varieties with, many seeds and a short fibre are l)eing grown, 
in contrast to the rank-growing, long-fibre sorts formerly pre- 
ferred. Thus the rows are more open, the work of the worms 
is more readily detected and the ])oison more easily applied. 

Other Caterpillars Injuring the Foliage 

Several of our common caterpillars which ordinarily feed upon 
various weeds frequently attack cotton foliage in restricted local- 
ities and do more or less serious damage. They may be readily 
controlled by keeping down the weeds upon which they normally 
feed and multiply and liy dusting the foliage as for the cotton 
worm as soon as they are noticed upon the cotton in any numl)ers. 

Among the more common of these leaf-eating caterpillars 
is the Garden Webworm* (see page 400), which may be recognized 
by the fine silken web which it spins over the young plants. 
Another is the White-lined Sphinx Caterpillar,! a yellowish- 
green caterpillar w'itli black eye-spots and faint stripes, varying 
to blackish with yellow spots, and distinguishable from most 
other cotton caterpillars by the horn, characteristic of sphingid 
caterpillars, at the tip of the abdomen. The Salt-marsh Cater- 
pillar X which is one of our best-known " woolly bear " cater- 
pillars, covered with black and red hairs, has frequently stripped 
cotton of foliage in Texas, as does the Fall Army Worm (see page 
lis), when it becomes locally overabundant. Many other species 
might be mentioned which do more or less local injury. 

* Deilephiln lineata Fab. Family Sphingidce. 
t Loxostege similalia Guen. Family Pyralidoe. 
X Estigmene acraea Drury. Family Arctiidoe 



248 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Cotton Square-borer * 

Just as the cotton squares commence to form they are often 
bored into by a small green caterpillar which many planters 
consider a stage of the Ijollworm and which others have called 
the " sharpshooter." This injury is often quite serious on a 
small area, as we have seen 10 per cent of the stalks entirely 
denuded of squares in small fields in Texas where this insect was 
abundant. The little caterpillars hollow out the squares in the 
same manner as does the bollworm, often destroying all of those 
on a plant knee-high and even boring into the tender stalk. The 




Fig. 176. — The cotton square-borer {Uranotes melimis Hbn.): a, adult; 
b, underwing of same; c, larva; d, pupa — natural size, (.\fter Howard, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

caterpillars are bright green, oval, decidedly flattenetl, covered 
with short hairs which give them a velvety appearance, and with 
the head retracted under the front of the body, thus being quite 
unlike any stage of the bollworm. They are the larvae of a dainty 
little butterfly (Fig. 176), of a bluish-black color, with dark red- 
dish lustre, and with bright red spots on the posterior border 
of the hind wings, common around cotton-fields. The small 
yellowish, transparent eggs are laid on the leaves and stems of 
cotton, cow-peas, goat-weed, and various weeds, and the larva? 
have also been found on hops, beans and cow-peas, seeming to 

* Uranotes melinus Hbn. Family Lycoenidoe. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 



249 



prefer the latter to cotton. The eggs hatch in from two to five 
days, the larvae become grown in a little over two weeks, and the 
pupal stage averages about ten days, so that the whole life cycle 
requires about a month in Central Texas, where there are three 
or four generations in a season. 

Fortunately for the planter the large majority of the cater- 
pillars are parasitized, over 90 per cent of the June generation 
having been thus destroyed. 

Usually, therefore, it is hardly worth while to attempt to com- 
bat this insect, as it is not often seriously injurious year after 
year. Should remedial treatment be necessary, thorough dust- 
ing with Paris green or arsenate of lead would probably destroy 
most of them, as the young caterpillars, like the bolhvorms, 
feed to some extent upon the foliage before entering the squares. 

" Sharpshooters " * 

In late summer reports are frequent that cotton is being 
injured by " sharp- 
shooters," especially 
on low land. These 
insects are reported to 
puncture the squares 
and bolls, causing 
them to drop prema- 
turely, a small black 
speck showing the 
spot where punctured. 
The insect which has 
been most commonl}- 
credited with this 
work is the Glassy- 

wingedSharpshooter,f 

, . . . fiG. 177. — The glassy-winged sharpshooter {Ho- 

but with it are USU- malodism triquetra Fab.) : adult at left, last 

ally associated several s^^ge of nymph at right, young nymph below 

, ,• •,, —all enlarged. (Author's illustration, U. S. 

near relatives with Dept. Agr ) 

* Family Jmsidw. f Homalodisca triquetra Fab. 




250 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



similar habits.* Few planters are able to identify the cause 
of the supposed injury, but many know these insects as 
" dodgers," from their habit of quickly dodging to the opposite 
side of the stem when disturbed. Extensive observations and 
repeated experiments during two seasons failed to show the 
slightest evidence that these insects arc ever injurious to cotton, 
though they are common upon it, the supposed injury being 
undoubtedly due to the physiological condition of the plant which 
causes a shedding of the fruit at the season when the supposed 
injury occurs. 






a b c 

Fig. 178. — Three cotton leaf hoppers commonly called sharpshooters: 
a, Aiilacizes irrorata; b, Oncomelopia undata; c, Oncotnetopia lateralis — 
nuich enlarged. (Author's illustratitHi, V. S. Dept. Agr.) 

The adult insects hibernate in rubbish on the ground near the 
food-plants and appear in early s})ring on the elm, hackberry, red- 
bud, Cottonwood, willow, and the tender shoots of other trees, 
especially on bottom-land near streams. Here they suck the 
juices of the tender leaves and deposit their eggs in them. The 
eggs are laid in rows of ten to fift(>en, side Iw side, just under the 
surface of the leaf, forming a blister-like niai-k. They hatch in a 

* Oncomelopia undata Fah., (). latci((lif> Fab., and Aulacizcs irrorata Fab. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 



251 



few days and the young bugs, or nymphs, are grayish or yellowish 
in color and resemble the adults except in the lack of wings. Two 
or three generations occur annually in Texas, and the insects are 
not common on cotton until midsummer. They are exceedingly 
fond of banana trees, sorghum and sunflowers, sometimes doing 
considerable injury to the latter, but there is no evidence for con- 
sidering them pests of cotton. 



The Cotton Leaf -bug * 

This insect was the cause of considerable damage in northern 




Fig. 179. — The cotton leaf-bug 
{Calocoris rapidus): a, adult; 
b, c, d, stages in growth of 
nymph; and cotton boll, showing 
spots injured l)y cotton leaf-bug 
all enlarged. (Author's illustra- 
tion, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



Texas in the latter part of the season of 1904, and had l)een pre- 
viously reported as a pest of cotton, though its injury had never 
t Calocoris rapidus Say. Family Capsida; 



252 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

been general. It punctures the squares and bolls, either causing 
them to drop or making the bolls shrivel or decay when punctured. 
The feeding punctures in the bolls are indicated by small black 
spots, resembling diseased places, which gradually become larger 
and sunken, evidently due to some poisonous substance intro- 
duced by the beak of the insect as it sucks the juices of the boll. 
The bugs may be readily recognized from Fig. 179, and by the 
bright red spots just ])eyond the middle of the wing. The young 
are light green marked with red. Several generations of the insect 
occur annually, but its life history and habits are still unknown, 
and no means of combatin"; it been devised. 



Other Plant-bugs * 

Several other species of plant-bugs cause similar injury by 
sucking the l)olls and causing black spots, with shrinking or decay. 




Vm. 180. — The green soldier-bug (Neznra hilaris): a, adult; b, beak; c, eggs. 
d, end of egg more enlarged; e, young nymph; /, last stage of nymph. 
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

Among these are the so-called " pumpkin-bugs " or " stink-bugs," 
of which a large green species f is the most commonly injurious, 
while the blackish, leaf-footed plant-bugs,J which are more abun- 
dant on cucurbs, do similar injury. 

* See A. W. Morrill, Plant-bugs Injurious to Cotton Bolls. Bulletin 88 
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 

t Nezara hilaris Say. Family Pentatomidw . 
J Leptoglossus oppositus Say. Family Corcidte, 



INSECTS liNJURIOUS TO COTTON 



253 



" Cotton-stainer " * 

The Red-bug or Cotton-stainer once did considerable damage to 
the bolls in Florida, Georgia, and neighboring parts of Alabama 
and South Carolina, but of late years has devoted most of its atten- 
tion to oranges. Early in the season they stunted the bolls and 
made them abortive by sucking the sap; but the most serious 
damage was done later, when they entered the open bolls, " punc- 




FiQ. 181. The red bug or cotton-stainer (Dysdercus sutureUus) enlarged. 
fl, nymph; b, adult. (From " Insect Life.") 



turing the seed and damaging the fibre " by their yellowish excre- 
ment. This indeliljlc stain greatly depreciated the market value 
of the fibre, and was a vexing loss. Though never of commercial 
importance, it was found by experiments that a rich orange dj'e 
could be made from these insects, which could be easily fixed upon 
silks and woolens by an alum mordant. In winter these insects 
congregate in heaps of cotton-seeds, and by using these as traps 
the insects may be killed with hot water. 

* Dysdercus sutureUus H. Schf. Family Pyrrhocoridce. 



25-1 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



The Cotton Bollworm * 

One of tho most destructive aiul widcspretul pests of cotton is 
the bollworm, the same insect as the earworm of coi-n already 
described (page 181), which should be consulted for the life history 
and description. Throughout the cotton belt the moths of the 
thii'd genei-ation appear about August 1st. At that time the ears 

of corn have become too 
hard to furnish suitable 
food for the larvae and 
the moths therefore lay 
their eggs on the cot- 
ton leaves, though if 
any late corn is in silk 
it is decidedly preferred. 
Thus during the month 
of August the cotton is 
often seriously injured 
l)y the caterpillars bor- 
ing into the bolls, this 
injury being most seri- 
ous in recent years west 
of the Mississippi and 

, „ , particularlv in north 
Fig. 182. — BolhvormatworkoncottonboUs, bor- 
ing into growTi boll— slightly reduced. (After Texas and Louisiana. 
Quaintance and Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.) ^he total damage to cot- 
ton is estimated at upward of $20,000,000 pei- annum. Though 
moie or less damage is done by the fourth generation of worms, 
injury is rarely serious, as the numbers are greatly reducetl 
by parasites and unfavorable weather conditions. 

About two-thirds of the eggs on corn are parasitized by 
a tiny little insect hardly visible to the naked eye,t which 

* Hcliotltis obsoleta Fab. Family Xoctuidir. See Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 290, U. S. Dept. Agr., by F. C. IMsliopp and V. R. Jones and Bulletin 50, 
Bureau of Entomology^ U. S. Dept. .\gr., by A. L. Quaintance and C. T. 
Brues. 

t TricJtogrammd jrrvtiosd Riley. 




INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 



255 



becomes so aljundant late in the season as to effectively check 
the increase of the pest. 

Wasps are effective enemies of the bollworms, provisioning 
their nests with them. Several species of tachina- flics parasitize 
the caterpillars, while not a few are killed by a bacterial disease. 
One of the most important natural factors in reducing their num- 
bers, however, is their own tendency to cannibalism, the larger 




Fig. 183. — Bollworni boring into green tomato. (After Quaiiitance and 
Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

caterpillars attacking and destroying the weaker with a consecjucnt 
marked reduction in numbers. 

Control. — As in protecting corn from this pest, the most effect- 
ive means is the plowing of the land containing the pupae in win- 
ter or late fall. 

Early planting of early fruiting varieties of cotton, with a 
liberal use of fertilizers, and frequent cultivation, so as to hasten 
the maturity of the crop, will result in a good crop Ijeing made 
before the worst injury by the boll worm occurs. These cultural 
measures ensure the best crops even where there are no insects 
to be avoided, and as an early crop is less injured by almost all 
cotton insects, the planter should adjust his methods to secure 
earliness. 



256 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



As the eggs are laid mostly on the cotton leaves and the little 
caterpillars nibble the surface before boring into the bolls, the 
poisoning of the foliage when the eggs are hatching will result in 

a very material reduction of the 
subsecjuent injury. Paris green has 
been most generally used, but 
probably powdered arsenate of lead 
will be found superior to it. Paris 
green has been used at the rate 
of 3 pounds per acre, applied either 
pure or diluted with lime or flour, 
using either a bag and pole, hand powder-gun or geared 
dusting machine. The dusting should be done while the plants 
are wet with dew. When not followed immediately by rain, two 





Fig. 184. — Egg of boUworm ; side 
and top views. Highly mag- 
nified. (From Quaintance and 
Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 




Fig. 185. — Bollworms showing variation in color, upper larva green, middle 
rose, and lower, dark brown — twice natural size. (After Quaintance and 
Brues, U. 8. Dept. Agr.) 



applications should be sufficient, the first when the eggs commence 
to hatch in numbers, usually between July 25th and August 5th, 
and the second about a week later. If rains follow, the applica- 
tions should be at once repeated. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 



257 



Inasmuch as the moths prefer to lay their eggs on corn-silk, 
cotton may be very effectively protected by the use of strips of 
late corn and cow-peas, planted through the cotton so as to act as a 
trap crop. Leave vacant strips four or five rods wide across the 







Fig. 186. — Pupa of tlie Iwllworm in its burrow in the soil, showing burrow 
made l^y the larva and filled in, and the exit burrow for the moth also 
made by the larva — natural size. (After Quaintance and Brues, U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 

fields when planting cotton. About June 1st plant these with 
alternate rows of Mexican June corn and cow-peas. This will bring 
the corn into silk about the first -of .\u2;ust and will attract the 



258 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



moths to lay their eggs upon it instead of the cotton, while the 
cow-peas will furnish both food and shelter to the moths. Corn 
should never be planted with cotton when cotton is planted, for 
instead of acting as a trap crop it merel}- furnishes food upon 

which the worms 
nuiltiply during the 
early season and 
forces those of the 
third generation on 
the cotton. The 
strips of corn and 
peas should be cut 
as soon as the worms 
on them become 
fairly grown and 
the land j)lowed to 
destroy any which may have pupated. " On large plantations the 
planting of small areas of corn here and there in the fields is prac- 
ticable. Such early crops as potatoes, oats, or wheat may be 
followed l)y corn and cow-peas with ])ractically the same results." 




"^SSSSi?»^ 



J 



Fig. 187. — The moth of the bollworm or corn cjir- 
worm — enlarged one-fo\irth. (After Quaiiitance 
and Brue.s, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



The Cotton-boll Cutworm * 



The larva of this species is a very common feeder upon the 
foliage of cotton and late in the season bores into the bolls in 
much the same manner as the bollworm. Cotton is but one 
of a long list of food-plants, however, as it is a common pest 
of sugar-beets, corn, wheat, cabbage, potato, asparagus, salsify, 
peach, raspberry, violet, cucumber, tomato, turnips, pea, rape, 
pigweed, cottonwood, and grasses according to Chittenden. 
It occurs couiiiioiily throughout the States east of the Rocky 
Mountains. 

The moth has a wing e\})aiise of about 1^, inches, the fore 
wings being a dark, rich, velvety blown, nuiiked with black, 

* Prodenia ornithogalli Guen. I'arnily Noctuidce. See Sanderson, I.e., 
and F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin 27, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 64. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 



259 




Fig. 188. — Tip of ear of com showing eggs of bollworm or com ear-worm on 
silks. (After Quaintance and Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



260 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



yellow and ochreous as shown in the illustration, while the hind- 
wings are a light gray. The grown caterpillar is 1^ to If inches 
long, and is quite variable in coloration, some being much darker 
than others, as shown in the illustration. The three whitish 
lines and the double row of triangular brown spots along the back 
of the lighter foinis \\\\\ cusily distinguisli this caterpillar from 
the bollwonn.* 

Life Hislorij. — The life history luis not been carefully observed 






Fig. ISO. — The cotton-boll cutworm {Prodenia omithogaUi Guen.): dark 
form of male moth al ove; pale form, female moth below; a, pale form 
of larva; h, dark form of larva; c, lateral view of al)dominal segments of 
pale form; d, same of dark fom. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

in the North, l)ut from oljservations nuide by the writer in Texas 
the life history in the Clulf States seems to be as follows: 

The winter is usually passed in the pupal stage in the soil, 
though possi])ly a few moths, emerging late, hibernate. The 
first brood of moths appears from the middle of May until the 
middle of June, mostly early in Juno. A second l)rood appears 
during the latter half of July, and a thii-d late in August and dur- 
ing September. A few of the fourth ])roo(l may emerge in Decem- 
ber, but most of them do not do so until the very early spring, 

* See Chittenden, I.e., p. 36, for distinguishing characters of related species 
of Prodenia. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 261 

when the}' lay eggs upon various weeds on which the larva? feed 
until cotton appears. The length of time occupied in the dif- 
ferent stages is seen to be quite variable, but is approximately 
six days for the egg, twenty days for the larva, and thirteen days 
(usually ten to fifteen days) for the pupa — making a total of 
about forty days for the complete life cycle. Dr. Chittenden 
believes that there are two generations in the North and probably 
three in the latitude of the District of Columbia. 

Control. — This species has not been sufficiently injurious on 
cotton to warrant extensive experinu>nts in its control. Where 
it attacks young j^lants of cotton or other crops, it may be com- 
bated with the means suggested for other cutworms on page 85. 
Where it becomes injurious to the l)olls, it might be controlled 
by thorough dusting or spraying with arsenicals, which would 
destroy the yoimg larvie while they are still feeding on the foliage. 

The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil ^^ 

Not since the invasion of the Mississippi ^' alley Ijy the Rocky 
Mountain locusts in the 7(3's has any insect caused such ruin 
to any staple crop as has the boll weevil in the territory affected 
during the past ten years, and it is one of the factors in the recent 
high prices of cotton. 

Like several of the woi'st insect j)esls of the fcjouth it is a native 
of Central America and came to us from Mexico, crossing the 
Rio Grande at Brownsville, Texas, about 1890. As early as 1862 
the weevil caused the growers at Monclova, Mexico, to abandon 
cotton culture and when they again planted it in 1893, the beetle 
promptly apjjcared and tlestroyed the entire crop. It nuiltiplied 
rapidly in south Texas, mining the crops, and by 1895 had spread 
northward to a line extending eastward from San Antonio. 
Since then it has spread northward and eastward, about sixty 
miles a year, until in 1905 it had covered all of Texas and western 
Louisiana and is now found tliroughout the cotton area of those 

* Anthcnomus grandis Boh. Family Curculionidce. See W. D. Hunter, 
"The Boll Weevil Problem," Farmers' Bulletin 344, U. S. Dept. Agr.; and 
Hunter and Hinds, Bulletin 51, Bureau of Entomlogj^, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



262 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

States and in Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and South- 
western Alabama. There seems to be no reason why it should 
not continue to spread throughout the cotton belt. 






Fig. 190. — The cotton boll weevil, natural size, .showing variation in 
size and color. 

In 1904, after an exhaustive study of all availal^le data, the 
writer estimated the loss in Texas alone at $25,000,000, and 

that the pest had then cost the 
State $100,000,000. Owing to 
decreas(^ in acreage and the gen- 
eral use of methods for preventing 
or avoiding injury, the injury 
has not increased proportion- 
ately to the spread of the pest, 
but the total annual loss is at 
least as much as in 1904, though 
no accurate estimates have been 
recently made for the whole ter- 

FiG. 191.— The cotton boll weevil— ritory affected. 

enlarged. Life History. — The parent of 

all this damage is a small brownish beetle about one-quarter inch 
long, varying from one-eighth to one-third, including the snout, 
which is about half as long as the l^ody. Recently emerged 
weevils are light yellowish in color, but they soon become gra>isli- 
brown and later almost blackish. There are many nearly related 
weevils which very closely resemble the boll weevil, and only an 
entomologist can identify the species with certainty, but the two 
teeth at the tip of the femora of the fore-legs (Fig. 191), are the 




2G4 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

most characteristic structure by which it may bo distinguished. 
The boll weevil feeds only upon cotton, and weevils found feeding 
on other plants arc certainly of other species. 




Fir;. 193. — Cotton square with bracts opened to show weevil at work on the 
l)ud, which shows a feeding puncture. 





Fig. 194.— The cotton boll weevil; eggs among the anthers at points indi- 
cated by arrows, the cross-section at the right showing opening througli 
which egg was deposited — greatly enlarged. 

The weevils commence to emerge from hibernation soon after 
cotton is up and continue to emerge until the cotton commences 
to square freely. During the spring the beetles feed on the foliage. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 265 

particularly in tlic tender terminals, and as soon as squares are 
formed the females commence to lay their eggs in them. Each 
female lays an average of about 140 eggs, la}'ing four or five a diiy. 
The female drills a small cavity in the square and in it deposits 
a ^ small oval white egg, which hatches in about three days. 
The grub feeds upon the embryo flower, which usually fails 
to develop, and the infested square generally falls to the ground. 
In from seven to twelve days the larva is full grown and changes 
to the pupa, which stage lasts from three to five days. Thus 




Fig. 1'J5. — The cotton boll weevil, larva and pupa — enlarged. 

from egg to adult requires from two to three weeks, though 
climatic conditions cause considerable variation in the length 
of time. The larva is a footless, white grub, with brown head, 
which lies curled up in the stjuare as shown in Fig. 195, where 
the soft white piq^a is also found. The adult weevils feed entirely 
during the daA'. Their length of life depends upon various 
conditions, but in the sunnner season the majority do not live 
over sixty days, while during the cooler part of the year those 
which hibernate live five or six months. Many squares are 
destroyed V)y tlw feeding punctures of the weevils. " The males 
feed upon the squares and bolls without moving until the food 
begins to deteriorate. The females refrain from depositing in 
squares visited by other females. This applies throughout 
most of the season, but late in the fall, when all the fruit has 
become infested, several eggs may l)e placed in a single square 



266 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

or boll. As many as fifteen larvae have been found in a boll. 
The squares are greatly preferred as food and as places for deposit- 
ing eggs. As long as a supply of squares is present the Ijolls are 
not damaged to any serious extent. The bolls, therefore, have 
a fair chance to develop as long as scjuares are being formed. 
Whenever frost or other unfavorable weather causes the plants 
to cease putting on s(iuares, th(^ weevils attack the bolls. A 





Fig. 1U6. — Cotton squares broken open, showing the boll weevil larvje within 

— enlarged. 

conservative estimate of the possible progeny of a single pair 
of weevils during a season beginning on June 20, and extending 
to November 4, is 12,755,100."— Hunter. Although the weevil 
may develop from egg to adult in two or three weeks, it requires 
an average of about forty-three days for a complete generation, 
and there arc probably not over four or five generations in a 
season. 

With the first killing frosts, most of the immature stages 
developing are killed, though in south Texas they often develop 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 



267 



during the winter, and the adult weevils soon go into hibernation. 
When seeking places for hibernation the weevils migrate from 
field to field, and it is at this season that the principal migration 
of the pest takes place. The weevils may hibernate in hedges, 
woods, corn-fields, haystacks, or farm buildings, particularly 
about seed-houses or similar situations. Experiments have 
shown that Spanish moss forms an exceedingly favorable place 
for hibernation, and that many weevils pass the winter in it on 
trees some distance above the ground. Others may hiber- 
nate in the cotton-field, crawling into cracks, under grass, 
weeds, and trash, and into the 
empty cotton burrs, while in 
the more southern sections 
many hibernate in injured 
bolls. The weevils w h i c h 
hibernate most successfully 
do so outside of the cotton- 
fields. The number which 
survive the winter has been 
accurately determined under 
various conditions for several 
seasons, and depends upon 
the minimum temperature, 
the amount of moisture, and 
the kind of shelter. Thus in 
central Texas but 2 or 3 per 

cent survive in many normal winters, while in the open winter of 
1906-07 11.5 per cent survived; in south Texas 15 per cent may 
survive, and in experiments made in Central Louisiana in 1908- 
09 with rather favorable conditions 20 per cent survived. The 
importance of reducing the number whicn survive the winter is 
evident. 

Natural Control. — If infested squares fall to the ground and lie 
on the unshaded, hot soil the larvae or pupse within them are soon 
killed. As many as 40 per cent of the immature stages have thus 
been found dead in many fields. The importance of wide rows 




I IG. 197. — Cotton boll weevils hiber- 
nating in locks of cotton removed 
from old bolls left on stalks over 
winter. 



268 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



and varieties which produce htlle sliade is therefore apparent, and 
it is evident that injury will be much less on dry upland soil, and 
nuu'li more severe in bottoms where the cotton grows rank and 
thick. 

Over a score of i)arasites ''= pi'ey upon tlie imnuiture stages 
within the squares or })olIs, and they seem to l)e increasing in num- 
bers and effectiveness as they become adapted to living upon the 
weevil, as they are all native insects which prey upon nearly 




Fig. 1'.'8. — Chain ciilli\:it()r fi)r use in drawing \v(>pvil infested .s((Vi:ues to center 
of row. (After Hunter, [' . S. Dept. Agr.) 

related species of weevils unci other insects. A., many as two-thirtls 
of the immature stag(>s have \)Qvn destroyed by th(>m in certain 
fields, though ordinarily not o\'er ") j)cf cent of the total are para- 
sitized. Several si)ecies of aiils also feed on the immature stages, 
20 to 30 per cent of those in fallen scpuires and bolls often being 
destroyed h}- them. The ants destroy ninny more in the fallen 
s<juares than in those hanging on the plants, so that the tlropping 
of tlie squares aids their good work as well as exposes the scjuares 
to the heat of the sun. 

Usually about 70 per cent of the infested s((uares drop, and in 
these 70 to SO per cent of the immature stages are destroyed by 
natural causes. f 

* See W. D. Pierce, Studies of Parasites on the Cotton Hull A\'eevil, 
Bulletin T.i, Bureau of I'lntomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 

t See W. E. Hinds, Some Factors in the Natural Control of the Mexican 
Cotton Boll Weevil, Bulletin 74, Bureau of Entoniologj^, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 



269 




Control. — By far the most important measure in the control of 
the boll weevil is the destruction of the plants in the fall as 
soon as the cotton can be picked. 
This both destroys the weevils 
and prevents their increase. The 
stalks should be plowed out and 
burned as soon as possible. It is 
well to plow out all ])ut a row 
here and there upon which the 
weevils will concentrate, then as 
soon as the piles are dry enough 
to burn, cut the remaining rows 
and l)urn at once. In this way the 
great bulk of the adult weevils 
and all of the immature stages 
in the squares and l)olls ai-e 
destroyed. The few escaping wee- 
vils will be starved out befoi'c the 
weather Ix'comes cold enough i'uv 
them to hil)ernate, or will be so 
weakened as to die in hil)ei'nation. 
Professor Wilmon Newell, in Louisiana, that where the weevils 
were forced into hibernation on October 15th only 3 per cent 
survived the winter, but that when the destruction of the stalks 
was put off until after December b")th, 43 per cent survived, with 
proportional numbers at intervening dates. Furthermore, the 
development of the late broods which furnish the majoiity of the 
weevils which hibernate is effectually prevented. The removal 
of the plants also facilitates wintei' plowing, which aids in pi'oduc- 
ing an early crop the next year. Many experiments and the 
experience of practical planters have shown that the destruction of 
the stalks in the fall is of primary importance in the control of the 
weevil, particularly upon bottom lands. Experiments made in 
Calhoun County, Texas, where the stalks were destroyed on 410 
acres, showed an increase the next season of over one-c{uarter 
bale per acre as compared with fields where the stalks had been 



Fio. 199. — Solenopsifi geminata 
Fab., a native ant which is a 
vahiable enemy of the \)o\\ 
weevil — much enlarged. (After 
Hunter and Hinds, U. S. Dept. 
A-r.) 

Thus it has been shown bv 



270 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

left standing, the benefit being wortli $14.50 per acre, or over 
twenty-nine times the cost of the work. It is better to plow out 
the stalks than to cut them, particularly in the far South, as the 
stalks will frccjuontly sprout out in the late fall and thus furnish 




P'iG. 200. — Brncon melliior Say, one of the most important parasites of the 
y>oll weevil larvae — much enlarged, (.\fter Hunter and Hinds, U. 8. 
Dept. Agr.) 

food for the late weevils, or will sprout in early spring and furnish 
food for those first emerging from hibernation. For the same 
reasons all volunteer cotton should be destroyed. 

It is evident that the thorough defoliation of the plants by the 
cotton leafworm will secure much the same result as the destruc- 
tion of the stalks, by removing the food supply of the weevil. 
Planters should not poison the leafworms, therefore, when they 
appear during the latter part of the season in fields injured bj' the 
weevil, for though formerly much dreaded they are now a great 
aid in preventing the increase of the weevil in fall. 

It has been demonstrated that injury by the weevil is never so 
severe where cotton is planted after some other crop, this being 
due to the fact that the weevils do not fly far from their hibernating 
quarters in the spring. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO COTTON 271 

By hastening the maturity of the crop, injury by the weevils 
may be avoided by making the crop before they have become 
most abundant. Everything possible should therefore be done 
toward hastening maturity, and this will be of importance in rela- 
tion to the early destruction of the stalks in the fall. Lantl should 
be plowed in the winter and a good seed bed prepared. Cotton 
should be planted as early as possible with safety. A liberal use 
of commercial fertilizers will hasten the growth of the crop even on 
fairly fertile soils, and on poor soils their use will return a hand- 
some profit. Early varieties of cotton should be planted, among 
the most satisfactory being, Rowtlen, Triumph, Cleveland Big 
Boll, Cook's Improved, King, Hawkins' Early Prolific, and Sim- 
kins. Seed should be secured from the originators of the varie- 
ties as far as possible. Chop out the plants as soon as possible. 
Frequent light cultivation will be found of the greatest importance 
in hastening the crop. Deep cultivation and cultivating close to 
the plants should be avoided as causing the scjuares to shed, and 
the old practice of " laying l)y " by running a broad sweep down 
the middles should be avoided. The lightest possible cultivation 
to keep the surface soil stirred is the best. All of these methods 
which aid in hastening the maturity of the crop are commonly 
called " cultural methods " of preventing loss from the weevil. 
They are not directed against the weevil itself, but are merely the 
best agricultural methods for securing an early crop, and on light 
upland soils attention to these methods will alone be sufficient to 
secure a good crop. 

It has already been shown that the immature stages in scpiares 
falling on the hot soil will be killed l)y the heat. To aid in this 
the rows should be planted fairly wide apart, and varieties pro- 
ducing a minimum of shade are preferable, as are those which 
readily shed their squares when injured. As most of the squares 
drop beneath the plants where they are shaded, any means of 
scraping them into the centres of the rows will aid in their 
destruction. For this purpose a chain cultivator as described by 
Hunter (I.e.) (Fig. 198) has proven very efficient for this purpose. 
The chains may be attached to ordinary cultivators by special 



272 INSECT PESTS OV FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

altacliineiils. An ann or projection that will brush the plant 
shoiikl be attached to whatever cultivator is used so that the 
s(juares will be knocked to the gi'ound, as the effect of the heat is 
greater th(> earli(>r the squai'es dro]). 

During 1909 Professor Wilnion Newell and his assistants demon- 
strated at several places in Louisiana that the weevil may be suc- 
cessfully poisoned by the use of dry or })owdered arsenate of lead, 
though previous experiments with dry Paris green and arsenate 
of lead as a litiuid spra}' had not proven of practical value for vari- 
ous reasons. An increase of 71 per cent of the crop was secured 
on considerable areas and the results were duplicated by practical 
planters. Pi'ofessor Newell recommends that the poison be 
applied first whcni the first s(juares appear and that five appli- 
cations l)e given at w(^ekly int(>rvals. The poison must be 
applie<l l)y hand with a powder-gun so that it is blown into the 
scjuares. The first application i-equires about 2.j ])ounds per acre 
and the last 5 to 7 i)ounds. The cost foi- labor and materials will 
amount to from 15 to 17 i)er acre, but at this rate the ojieration 
will show a decided profit with the ;d)ove amount of benefit as 
long as cotton sells at ovei' S (-(Mits per pound, .\lthough the use 
of powdered arsenate of lead is still in an e.\{)erimental stage, it 
promises to become quv of the most important means of com- 
l)ating the boll we(>vil, i)ai'ticularly in the river bottoms of the 
Mississippi basin, where conditions for the nudtiplication and 
lii))ernation of the weevil are particularly favorable.* 

* See Newell and Stuilh, ("ireiilar :>:!, Louisiana Cvop Pest Conimi.ssiou, 
Balon Rouge, La. 



CHAPTER XTV 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT * 

The Hop-plant Borer f 

The Hop-plant Borer is somctiiiics tli(> occasion of a considoi- 
ablo loss to the hop industry', Mr. Clias. R. Dodge having estimated 
upon the basis of tiic census of 1879 that it then amounted to 
1600,000 annually in New York State alone. The moths have 
been taken from Ontario and New England south to the District 
of Columbia, and west to Wisconsin, and also from Colorado and 
Washington, but the larviB have never become injurious in th(> 
hop-fields of the Pacific Coast. " It is probal)le that it is a north- 
ern form, and confined, as it seems to be, to a single food-plant, it 
will be found only where this plant is known to grow." 

Life Ilistorij. — Many of the moths emerge from the pupa; in the 
fall and hibernate over winter, while others do not transform till 
spring, passing the winter in the pupal stage in small cells in the 
ground near the roots of the plant which the larva' have infested. 
The moths appear during May, antl the females deposit their globu- 
lar, yellowish-green eggs upon the tips of the hop-vines just as they 
begin to climb. " The egg hatches in a few days and produces a 
minute slender greenish larva, spotted with black, which immedi- 
ately burrows into the vine just below the tip, and spends a part of 
its life in the vine at this point. The vine soon shows the effects of 
the insect's work; instead of pointing upward, embracing the pole 
readily and growing rapidly, the tip points downward, will not 
climb, and almost entirely ceases growing. This appearance is 
called by growers a ' muffle-head.' When the insect attains a 

* " Some Insects Affecting tlie Hop-plant," L. O. Howard, Bulletin No. 
7, n. s.. Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 41. 
f Hydroecia immanis Grt. Family Noctuidcp. 

273 



274 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PI>ANT 



length of about half an inch, or slightly less, it leaves the tip, drops 
to the ground, and entering the stem at the surface of the vine, 
feeds upward, .'nterrupting the growth of the vine and lessening its 
vitality; the larva now changes color, and becomes a dirty-white, 
with a strong, deep reddish tint, with numerous black spots. The 
larva, now al)Out an inch in length, and still slender, ])urrows down- 
ward to the ])ase of the vine at its juncture with the old stock, and 
eating its way out, completes its growth as a subterranean worker; 




Fig. 201. — Hop-plant borer {Hydroecia immanis Grt.): o, enlarged segment of 
larva; h, larva; c, pupa; d, adult, natural size. (After Howard, U. S. 
Dejit. Agr.) 



it is in this state that it is best and most widely known as the hop 
' grub,' and the ravages caused b}*it are most noted."* 

The larva? have mostly left the stems by the last of June 
and henceforth are mainly sap-feeders. Eating into the stem 
just below the surface of the ground and just above the old root, 
they rapidly grow fat upon the juices of the plant. These openings 
are gradually enlarged so that very often the stem is entirely 
severed from the root or is so slightly attached that the plant 
is badly stunted and yields few, if any, hops. The larvie become 
full grown from the middle to the 20th of July and are then 

* " Hop-insects," Dr. J. B. Smith, Bulletin No. 4, o. s., Division of Ento- 
mology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT 275 

" about two inches in length, fleshy, unwieldy, and very slow in 
their movements; they are of a dirty white color, speckled with 
fine, brownish elevated tubercles, each furnished with a single 
stout hair; the head is brownisii and corneous, as is also the top 
of the first segment." (I.e.) 

The larvae now transform to pupa? in rough cells, close to the 
roots which they have infested, and the adult moths emerge 
during August or September, or the following spring. The 
adult moths are found, upon close examination, to be most 
beautifully marked, though not of a striking appearance at first 
sight. " The general color is a rosy brown, paler at the extremity 
of the wings. The darker central portion is shaded with dark 
velvety bronze and marketl with two dull-yellow spots. The fore- 
wings are divided into three areas by narrow oblique transverse 
lines, edged outwardly with pink. The hind-wings are paler in 
color, crossed in the middle by a slightly darker line." — Howard I.e. 

Remedies. — Two points in the life history of the insect afford 
opportunity for its control. The first is when the young larva^ 
are still in the tips and can easily be crushed by the fingers when 
tying the vines. " Muffleheads " should always be picketl off 
and destroj'cd. 

Early in June when the larvffi have left the inside of the vines 
it is well to remove all the soil from the base of the vine, down 
to the junction with the old root. The larvae, which will not 
feed above ground, will go to the old roots, to which they will 
do but little injury. The roots should be left thus exposed for 
about a week. A handful of mixture of coal and wood ashes or 
ammoniated phosphate should then be applied to each and the 
plants hilled high. The plant will now send out new rootlets 
from the main root, and is al)le to secure necessary nourishment 
through them. 

The Hop-louse * 

Like many another aphid the Hop-louse has a most interest- 
ing life history, which has been fully ascertained in but recent 
years. During the winter the small oval black eggs may be 
* Phorudon humuli Schr. Family Aphididae. 



276 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



found in the crevices and around the buds of the terminal twigs 
of phim-trees near infested hop-fields. From these hatch a 





Fio. 202. — The hoj)-louse {Phorodon humuli Schr.) : a, winter eggs and shrivelled 
skin of the sexual female which laid them; b, stem-mother, or first spring 
generation, with enlarged antenna above — all much enlarged. (After 
Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 




Fig. 203. — The hop plant-louse, third generation on plum — the generation 
which flies to the hop — enlarged; head below at right — still more 
enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

generation of females, known as " stem-mothers," during the 
following spring. The aphides of this generation differ in being 
stouter, with shorter legs and honey-tubes than those of any other 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP PLANT 



277 



generation. Three generations feed upon the pkim, the third 
becoming winged and flying to its favorite food in tlie hop-field. 

Throughout the summer the aphides reproduce partheno- 
genetically. They " multiply with astonishing rapidity for 
from five to twelve generations, carrying us in point of 
time to the hop-picking season." " Each parthenogenetic 
female is capable of producing on an average one hundred 
young (the stem-mother piobably being more prolific), at the 
rate of one to six, or an average of three 
per day, under favorable conditiont^. 
Each generation begins to breed about 
the eighth day after birth, so that the 
issue from a single individual easily runs 
up, in the course of the summer, to mil- 
lions. The number of leaves (700 hills, 
each with two poles and two vines) to an 
acre of hops, as grown in the United 
States, will not, on the average, much 
exceed a million before the period of 
blooming or burning; so that the issue 
from a single stem-mother may, under 
favoring circumstances, l)light hundreds 
of acres in the course of two or three 
months." * 

During Septem]:)er a Ijrood of winged females are produced 
which Hy back to the plum-trees, and in the course of a few days 
give birth to three or more young. These never become winged, 
but are the true sexual females which lay the winter eggs. The 
true winged males are developed during the latter part of the 
season and may be found paii'ing with the wingless females at 
that time, these being the only males during the year. 

Remedies. — From a knowletlge of the above life history 
several methods of treatment have been devised. By spraying 
plum-trees neighboring the hop-yard and infested with aphides 
while they are laying the eggs, during fall or in the spring 

* Riley, The Hop-louse, Insect Life, Vol. I, p. 135. 




Fk;. 204.— The hop 
plant -lou.sc, true sex- 
ual female — enlarged. 
(After Riley, U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 



278 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

before the winged generation appears, with some substance 
which will destroy them, the pest may be prevented from getting 
a start the next season. Spraying the trees during the fall is 
best, because a stronger or more caustic solution can then be 
applied without danger of injury to the tree. A winter wash of 1 
pound of concentrated lye to 2 gallons of water may be used as a 
spray to advantage in killing a large share of the eggs, but should 
not be applied after the buds commence to swell in the spring. To 




Fig. 205. — The hop plant-louse, male — enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. D. Agr.) 

lessen the number of eggs all wild plum-trees in the neighboring 
woods should be destroyed. As soon as the crop is harvested, 
the hop-vines should be burned or thoroughly sprayed with 
kerosene emulsion, so as to kill off the males before they have 
been able to fertilize the females. 

For spraying the plum-trees and hop-vines kerosene emulsion 
has been found very satisfactory, diluting the stock solution with 
15 parts of water. 

Fish-oil or whale-oil soap used at the rate of 1 pound to 8 
gallons of water will prove an effective spray against the lice. 
Also see page 664. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PI.ANT 



279 



The Hop-vine Snout-moth * 

The larvse of the Hop-vine Snout-moth sometimes become 
very formidable pests in the hop-field, appearing suddenly in 
large numbers and rapidly eating the foliage over a large area. 

They are not known to have any other food-plant than the 
hop and hence are only found where that plant occurs, though 
specimens have been taken from almost all sections of the United 
States, southern Canada, and British Columbia. 




6/ ,jm\ vv 





Fig. 206. — The hop-vine snout-moth (Hypena humuli Harr.): a, egg; b, larva 
c, segment of same; d, pupa; e, cremaster of same; /, adult — a, c, e, 
greatly enlarged, others slightly enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. 

Agr ) 

Life History. — It seems probable that the moths hibernate 
over winter, as they emerge in the fall, and lay eggs for the first 
brood early in the following May. The eggs are of a pale green 
color, and are deposited upon the under surfaces of the leaves, 
sometimes several upon a single leaf. The larvse emerging from 
them become mature late in June and early in July. When 
full-grown the larvae are slightly less than one inch long, and 
" of a green color, marked with two longitudinal white lines down 
the back, a dark-green line in the middle between and an indistinct 
whitish line on each side of the body. The head is green, spotted 



* Hypena humuli Harr. Family Noctuidce. 



280 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

with black piliferous dots, and similar dots occur on each seg- 
ment, arranged in two transverse rows." * 

Before pupating the larva spins a thin silken cocoon, either 
among the leaves, under the l)ai'k of the poles, or at or slightly 
under the surface of the ground. The pupal stage occupies about 
ten days, and the moths emerge from the cocoons early in July. 
Another brood follows with a similar life history, the moths 
emerging late in August and in Septcnnber and prol)ably hibernat- 
ing over winter. 

Th(> larva» are known as " false loopers," on account of their 
bending the back slightly in ci'ee])ing, wiiich is due to their lacking 
the first pair of pro-legs. 

Another species of the same geiuis {Hypcna rostndis) affects 
hop-vines in Europe in the same manner and is very similar to 
the one above described. 

Remedies. — The larva> can be controlled by the use of any 
arsenical sjji'ay, wliicli should be ai)])lie(l while they are still young. 

Hop-merchants 

The so-called "llop-merchaiits," which here and there gleam 
fi-om the vines are the chrvsalids of two common butterflies, whose 
larva^ feed preferably upon hops. The chrysalids are normally 
marked with beautiful gold or silver spots, which sometimes 
become so diffused as to tinge the whole chrysalis. " An inter- 
esting superstition holds among hop-growers to the effect that 
when the golden-spotted chrysalids are plentiful the crop will 
be good and the price high, while if the silver-spotted ones are 
plentiful and the golden-spotted ones are scarce the price will be 
low." — Howard, (I.e.). 

The Semicolon-butterfly f 

The common names of these two butterflies indicate the most 
striking mark of distinction between them. P. interrogationis 
bears a silver mark like a semicolon or interrogation point upon 

* Howard, I.e. 

f Polifgonia interrogationis Godart. Family Nymphalidae. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT 



281 



the under «ide of the hind wings (Fig. 207), while P. comma has the 
same mark without the dot, which thus resembles a comma 
(Fig. 208). 

The Semicolon-butterfly is common throughout the United 
States east of the Rockies, and especially in hop-growing regions. 
It hibernates over winter and is among the first butterflies to be 
seen in early spring, when it is often attracted to the flowing sap 



a 




^■^^:-r^^ 



Fig. 207. — The semicolon-butterfly (Poh/ffonia inicrrofjalionis): a, egg-chain; 
b, larva; f, chrysalis; r/, adult — all natural size except a, which is 
greatly enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

of newly cut trees. The eggs are laid lute in Ma}- or early in June, 
usually upon the under surface of the leaves of elm, blackberry, 
or nettle, either singly or in pendent columns of from two to 
eight. They hatch in from four to eleven days and the larva? 
grow quite rapidly. 

When full grown the larva is an inch and a (juarter long. The 
head is reddish-black, somewhat bilobed, each lobe being tipped 
with a tubercle bearing five single, black-pointed spines, and cov- 
ered with many small white and several blackish tubercles. The 



2S2 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

body is black, tliickl}- covered with streaks and dots of yellowish 
white; the second segment is without spines, but with a row of 
yellowish tubercles in their place; the third segment has four 
branching spines, all black, with a spot of dark yellow at their 
base ; and on the fourth segment are four spines, as there are on all 
the others, excepting the terminal, which has two pairs, one pos- 
terior to the other. The spines are yellow, with blackish branches, 
excepting the terminal pair, which are black; and there is a row of 
reddish ones on each side. The under surface is yellowish gray, 
darker on the anterior segments, with a central line of blackish, 
and many small black dots. 

The chrysalis is ash-brown, with the head deeply notched, and 
with eight silvery spots on the back; this stage lasts from eleven 
to fourteen days and the butterflies emerge in July. These lay 
eggs for another brood late in July and throughout August, mainly 
upon the hop-plants, where they are to be found. When the cater- 
pillars of this brood are numerous they sometimes do considerable 
damage to the foliage, but both this and the following species are 
ordinarily prevented from becoming overnumcrous by several 
parasites of the eggs and larvae. Only when for some reason con- 
ditions are unfavorable to the development of its parasites does 
either species become especially abundant. In fact. Dr. J. B. 
Smith, who made extensive observations upon hop-insects in 1883. 
states " that not one in ten of the insects ever attains the butterfly 
state." 

The chrysalis stage of the second brood is somewhat longer 
than the first, sometimes lasting twenty-six days, and the butter- 
flies emerge from the latter part of August until the end of October, 
and at once seek quarters in which to hibernate over winter. 

Both this species and P. comma arc dimorphic, the winter and 
summer forms differing in both sexes in Ijoth the upper and lower 
aspects of the wings. In the South, where from three to five 
broods occur in a season, both forms are usually found in the sec- 
ond and third broods, the summer form, var. umbrosa, gradually 
decreasing until all of the fourth brood are the hibernating winter 
form, var. fabricii. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE HOP-PLANT 



283 



The Comma-butterfly * 

The Comma-butterfly is most common throughout the East 
from New England to North Carolina and Tennessee, though occa- 
sionally found as far west as Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska, and 
Texas. 




Fig. 208. — The comma-butterfly {Polygonia comma): a, egg-chain; b, larva; 
c, chrysalis; d, adult — all natural size, except a. which is greatly 
enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



Its life history is practically the same as that of the species just 
described. The larvae of the first brood sometimes seriously dam- 
age young elm-trees which have been but recently reset, by eating 
them bare of the foliage. The winter form hibernates about a 
month earlier, being rarely seen in Octol)er. As a rule a similar 

* Polygonia comma Harr. Family Nymplialida;. 



284 INSECT PES1\S OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

diiuurphisin occurs. Uie liibeniating form being known as var. har- 
risii and the .sunnuer form var. dryas, though the distinction is not 
as markcMl in this species.. 

The half-grown hirva is bhick, with a yellowish s.tripe along the 
side from the third segment, and with yellow stripes across the 
back, and spots of the same color at the base of the dorsal spines, 
which are yellow tipped with black. The mature caterpillar is 
white, mottletl, or striped with gra}' or ashen, and with red 
spiracles. 

The butterflies of both species twr of a lich brown color, marked 
with black and tij)ped with lilac above, and of a much darker pur- 
plish bi'own with the characteristic silver spots Ixnieath, which are 
well indicated in the illustration. 

Ii('nie(li('.'<. — Spraying with an arsenical will destro}' the larvffi 
when sucii treatment l)ec()mes necessarv. 



CHAPTER XV 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 

The Potato Stalk-borer* 

Ix some sections this inset-t has rivaled the famous Colorado 
potato-bug in the damage it has inflicted upon potato-vines. It 
was recorded as badly damaging the crop in Iowa in 1S90, 




Fig. 209. — Work of potato stalk-borer in potato-vines. (After J. B. Smith.) 



and was found by Dr. Riley in Missouri as early as 1869. The 

beetles were first noted in New Jersey in 1895," and have been 

injurioXis in Maryland and most of the Middle States. 

L/yV History. — Thegrubs, which bore into the stalks of the vines, 

* Trichobaris trinotata Say. Family Curculionida . 

L'S5 



286 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

are the larvae of some small ashen-gray beetles which appear early 
in spring and into June. These beetles are about one-fourth of an 
inch long, with a long, black beak or snout, and are marked at the 
base of the wing-covers by three black spots which give the insect 
its specific name, trinotata. Each beetle punctures a small hole in 
the base of a stem by means of its beak, hollows out a small cavity, 
and there lays a single small, oval, whitish egg. From these eggs 
some small, white grubs with brown heads hatch in a few days and 
commence to bore into the stalk. These grubs keep eating, either 
in the main stalk or branches, from August 1st to September 1st, 




Fig. 210. — Potato Stalk-borer (Trichobaris trinotata). 
adult. (After J. B. Smith.) 



Larva, pupa and 



when they have become full grown. At this time the grubs are 
about one-half an inch long, of a dirty white or yellowish color, 
with a yellowish-] )rown, horny head, and without legs. About the 
middle of August, as a general rule, the grubs construct small, oval 
cocoons of chips and fibres in the stalk of the vine near the sur- 
face of the soil, and there transform to the pupae. During late 
August and September the mature beetles shed the pupal skins, in 
which they have remained dormant for the last few weeks, but 
remain in the vines during tiie winter, and do not come forth till 
the following spring. 

Remedies. — On account of its internal feeding habits no poison 
can be successfully used against this pest, and the only remedy, 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 287 

but a good one, is to rake up the vines and burn them as soon as 
the potatoes have been dug. As this insect also feeds upon the 
Jamestown weed, horse-nettle, and other weeds of the Nightshade 
family, or Solanacccc, they should be kept cut down very closely. 
When the grubs are noticed in the plants, a good allowance of fer- 
tilizer will do much to quicken growth and thus enable them to 
mature a crop. 

The Stalk-borer * 

This species may well be called the stalk-borer, for it not only 
tunnels the stalks of potatoes — being often called the potato stalk- 
borer — and tomatoes, but freciuently infests corn, cotton and a long 
list of garden crops, grains, grasses, flowering plants, and various 
common weeds. Apparently the latter, such as ragweed, cockle- 
bur and the like, are its normal food plants, and when they are 
destroyed or where more tender cultivated plants are near by, 
it attacks whatever is available. Two or three nearly related 
species have verj- similar habits. 

The adult moth (Fig. 211) is a fawn-gray or mouse color, with 
the outer third of the fore-wings paler and bordered within by a 
whitish cross-line. 

Life History. — The eggs are laid in the fall on the stems of 
weeds and grasses, in masses of fifty or sixty, near the ground, 
They are about one-fiftieth inch in diameter, circular, grayish 
in color, with radiating ridges. They hatch in late May in 
southern Minnesota and the young caterpillars at once commence 
to mine small galleries in the leaves of the food plants, soon 
riddling the leaves. In a few days they work down to the bases 
of the leaves and enter the stalks, which they tunnel out and not 
infrequently leave one plant and migrate some little distance 
before entering another. Infested plants are readily recognized 
by the wilting of the parts above the larva, the work in corn 
being particularly noticeable and having given the local name 
of " heart-worm." The larvae become full grown about the 
first of August. They are readily recognized by the peculiar 

* Papaipema nitella Gn. Family NoctuidcB. 



288 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

iiiarkiiigs of the body (Fig. 211, h). The larva is aljoui an inch 
long and varies from purplish to whitish bi-own, and is marked 
with five white stripes, one along the middle of the back, and two 
on each side. These sides stripes arc absent on the first four 
segments of the abdomen, giving the larva an appearance as if 
it had been pinched or injured there. As the larva matures the 
stripes become fainter. When reatly to pupate the larva cuts a 




I'Ki. 211. — Tilt" stalk-horor {Pafxiipeinu nltelUt Cin.): a, adull ; 6, lialf-f^rowa 
larva; c, mature larva in burrow; d, side of ou(\ of its .segments: c, 
pupa — all slightly enlargetl. (From Chittenden, U. S. Dcpt. Agr.) 



hole through the sid(> of the stalk, and then Iraiisforms to the 
brown pui)a in the lower part of the stalk. The i)ui)al stage lasts 
about two or three weeks, and the moths emerg(> in late August, 
there being but one generation a year. 

Usually the injury to crops is only in the outer rows. t(j which 
the larvae have migrated from weeds growing along the edges, 
or in fields which have been weedy in early spring, or where the 
weeds have been allowed to get a start before being culti- 
vated out. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 280 

Control. — From the life history and habits it is obvious that 
clean farming is the only method of effectual control. The 
destruction of weeds and fall plowing should prevent any general 
injury. Usually the injiuy is but local, and fortunately ihe 
caterpillars are attacked by numerous parasites which aid in 
their control, sometimes to the extent of killing 70 per cent of 
them. In small gardens the prompt disstruction of infested 
plants will prevent the caterpillars from migrating to others. 
Where weeds are infested in or near a crop they should be destroyed 
as soon as cut, for if left on the ground the larvie will promptly 
migrate to the nearest plants. Wheiv fields are kept clean of 
weeds there will be little trouble.* 

The Potato Tuber-worm j 

The most serious pest of tlu^ potato in California is the Tuber- 
worm, which in tobacco regions of the Southern States is known 
as the "split worm " or leaf-miner (see page 237). Xot infre- 
quently 25 per cent of th(» crop is lost in infested regions in 
California, injury occurring l)oth in the fields and to the tubers 
in storage. As the pest is carried in the potatoes and breeds in 
storage thi'oughout the warm winters of California, and when 
exported across the Pacific, it is necessary to closely inspect 
potatoes from infested regions. Although no injury to potatoes 
has occurred outside of Califoi'nia, and though the insect piT)l)ably 
could not exist in the North, it may well be guarded against in 
the Southern States, where it is a common tobacco pest.| 

Moths which have developed from larvae working in stored 
potatoes are on the wing when young potatoes are up, and lay 
their eggs at the base of the leaves. The young larva? bore into 
the stalks, often causing the plants to wilt and die. On older 

* See Forbes, 23d Report State Entomologist of Illinois, p. 44; Washburn, 
12th Report State Entomologist of Minnesota, p. 151 ; Journal Economic 
Entomology, III, p. 16.5; Smith, Report N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. for 1905, pp. 
5S4-587. 

f Phthorimea operculcUa Zell. See W. T. Clarke, Bulletin 135, California 
Agr. Exp. Sta. 

IRecently serious injury by fhis insect has been reported to jjotatoea 
near Hallettsville, Texas. 



290 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

plants or when tlie stalks harden, the larva? leave the stalks and 
enter the tubers, particularly where they may be exposed. Where 
potatoes are exposed l)y being insufficiently covered the moths 
will lay their eggs tlirectly upon them, as they also do upon 
potatoes exposed in the field after digging. 

Most of the observations upon the life history seem to have 
been matle upon the insect when breeding in stored potatoes. 
The eggs are al)out one-fiftieth inch long, oval, white, and laid 
singly or in pairs, about the eyes of the potatoes, or in similar 
rough places, where they are seen with difficulty. They hatch 
in a week or ten days, and the 3'oung larvse are about one- 
twenty-fifth inch long of a transparent white color. The 
larvse burrow beneath the skin and bore into the potatoes, 
filling their burrows with frass and excrement, which soon give 
rise to various rots which cause the destruction of the tuber, 
already rendered unfit for food by the burrows. The larva 
become full grown in about six or seven weeks. They are then 
about a half inch long. The head is dark brown; the first 
segment is an old rose color, with dark bi-own shield on the 
back; the second segment is a similar clouded pink; while the 
third and succeeding segments are a clouded white, often becom- 
ing yellowish or greenish, according to the food eaten. The full- 
grown larva returns to the mouth of the burrow and there makes 
its cocoon, or leaves it and forms the cocoon in some depression 
of the potato or in some crack of the storage vessel or in a fold 
of the bag. The cocoon is constructed quite differently from 
that of most moths as describ(»d by Mr. Clarke. The larva first 
makes a mat of silk and th<Mi forms an outer layer to the surface 
of which particles of dirt and rubbish adhere so that the cocoon 
is well concealed. When this pocket-like cocoon is finished the 
larva enters it and closes the open end and in it transforms to 
the pupa. The pupal stage lasts about two weeks, so that the 
complete life cycle requires from nine to twelve weeks, there being 
several generations during the year, according to the temperature. 

Control. — As the insect breeds on various common weeds of 
the Nightsluule family {Solonacece) , it is important that they be 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 291 

destroyed wherever found. Seed potatoes must be free from the 
larvae, or they will soon give rise to moths which will infest a 
whole field. When young plants are found wilting, the infested 
stalks should be cut and destroyed as soon as possible to prevent 
the further development and spread of the pest. Care should 
be taken in cultivating to hill up the soil, or thoroughly cover 
the tubers, so that they are not exposed. After digging, the 
potatoes should not be left exposed in the field any longer than 
is absolutely necessary and should not be covered with the tops 
to shade them, as is often done, as this furnishes a shelter for the 
moths and induces oviposition upon the tubers. Infested fields 
should have the stalks and all rubbish and refuse thoroughly 
raked up and burned as soon as possible, or sheep and hogs may 
be turned into the fields to destroy the stages which may be 
left in the vines or in the soil. Where fields have been flooded 
for two or three weeks after the crop has been dug, they have 
been entirely freed of the pest. For the treatment of stored 
potatoes, fumigation with carbon bisulfide in a tight room 
seems to be the only satisfactory method. This should be done 
as described for grain insects (see page 57). The tubers should 
be fumigated as soon as stored, and the treatment should be 
repeated at intervals of two weeks, four or five fumigations 
being recommended to entirely free the potatoes of all stages. 
Obviously it will be important to sort over infested tubers and 
remove all which are materially injured to prevent the increase 
of rot in others. 

Colorado Potato-beetle * 

First and foremost among the enemies of the potato-grower 
stands the Colorado potato-beetle — the insect which in the early 
seventies, on account of our ignorance of it, was made an entomo- 
logical bugbear. But " there's no great loss without some small 
gain," and we may be thankful that the invasion of this beetle 
also brought about the use of Paris green, an insecticide which has 

* Leptinotnrsa decemlineata Say. Family Chrysomelidoe. See F. H. 
Chittenden, Circular 87, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



292 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

since saved millions upon millions of dollars to the American 
farmer. Thus, with an effcH-tual I'cmiedy which is now used when; 
this pest occurs as regularly as i)otatoes ai'e planted, " familiarit}' 
has l)red contempt," and to-day W(; havc^ but little fear of its 
attack. 

HiKlorii. — As is probably known to most of the older genera- 
tion who watched its spread eastward, the Coloi'ado potato-beetle, 
as its name indicates, was a native of the Rocky Mountain region, 
and until about IS.'),") was satisfied with fecMJing u])on various com- 




Fic. 212. — The Colorado potato-beetle (Lcpti)int(irsin (hccmliiieata Say.): o, 
eg;g.s; h, larva; c, pupa; d, beetle; e, elj'tra or wing-cover of beetle; 
' /, leg of beetle. (After Riley.) 



mon weeds of the same genus as the potato-plant, principally 
Solanum datimt, and closely allied genera. But with the settle- 
ment of this counti'v and the inti'oduction of the Irish potato, 
these bugs also began to take advantage of the fruits of civilization 
and transferred their feeding-gi'ounds fi'om the roadside to the 
potato-patch, and rapidly spread eastward fi'om one to another, 
as well as being transported in the shipping of the potatoes. 

Thus, in 1S59 they had readied a point one hundred miles west 
of Omaha, Neb.; five years later they crossed th(^ Mississippi into 
Illinois; and they advanced steadilj^ eastward till recorded among 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TV POTATOES AND TOMATOES 293 

the Atlantic States in 1874. Th-ougli slow to be introduced into 
some few sections of the country, it is safe to assert that this pest 
may to-day be found almost wherever the potato is grown in the 
United States or southern Canada. 

Life History. — During October the beetles enter the earth and 
there hibernate till the warm sunshine of April or May brings 
them forth. As soon as the young plants appear, the female 
beetles deposit their yellow eggs upon the under side of the leaves 
near the tips, each female laying an average of about five hundred 
eggs during the course of a month. Meanwhile the beetles have 
done considerable damage by eating the young and tender plants. 
In about a week there hatch a horde of 
very small but ver}' hungry larvie, which 
fairly gorge themselves with potato- 
foliage and increase in size with astonish- 
ing rapidity. In two and a half to three 
weeks, after having eaten an amount of 
food out of all pr(;j)or.ion to their size, the yiu 213 - a hckdi" 
larva; become full grown, and enter the daceous l)ug; h, Padi- 

earth, where thev form smooth, oval f^>^ mno.us p^.y, 

' beak oi ))uuit-fceaing 

cells, and transform to pupie. In a week bug. (After Riley.) 

or two the adult beetles emerge from 

the pupal skins ami after feeding for a couple of weeks, deposit 
eggs for a second generation, which develops in the same way, 
and the beetles from which hi])crnate as already described. 
Throughout the territory where the beetles are most injurious 
there are two generations a year, but further south there is evi- 
dence of at least a partial, if not complete, third generation, and 
in the northern range of the species there is but one generation 
a year. 

Natural Enemies. — One of the chief agencies to prevent the 
excessive multiplication of this pest is the weather. Thus, Pro- 
fessor Otto Lugger records that in Minnesota, late in the fall 
of 1894, the beetles were lured from their winter quarters by a 
few warm days, and most of them subsequently perished from 
hunger or frost. In addition to this during the late summer of 




294 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



1894 there was an excessive drouth, so that but few of the 
second brood matured. Thus in 1895 there were very few of 
the insects to be seen. 

Among the birds, the common crow, the red-breasted gros- 
beak, and turkeys often feed upon this pest to a considerable 
extent. 

Probably the most destructive insect-parasite of the larvae is a 
Tachinid-fly known to science as Lydella doryphorce Ril., which 
rather closely resembles the common house-fly, both in size and 
color, A single egg is laid on a potato-bug and from it hatches a 
small, footless maggot which burrows inside the bug. When the 
larva enters the earth, the effect of the maggot's work becomes 
apparent, and instead of transforming to a pupa and beetle, it 
shrivels up and dies; but the maggot itself contracts into a hard, 
brown pupa, from which the fly eventually emerges. Thus in 
1868, when first noted by Dr. C. V. Riley, he asserted that in 
Missouri fully 10 per cent of the second brood and one-half of the 
third were destroyed by this parasite. 

Many of our common lady-bird beetles and their larvae check 
the pest by feeding upon the eggs. Several predaceous bugs, par- 
ticularly the spined soldier-bug (Podisus spinosus Dall.) (Fig. 213) 

are of value in destroying the 
larvae, into which they thrust 
their short, powerful beaks, and 
then suck out the juices of the 
body, leaving an empty skin. 
One or two of these closely re- 
semble the common squash-bug 
(Anasa tristis De G.), but are 
really very dissimilar, and whereas 
the beaks of the predaceous 
forms are short and thick, as in 
Fig. 213, a, those, of plant-feed- 
ers, like the squash-bug, are long and slender, as in Fig. 213, b. 

Several species of ground-beetles are often found preying upon 
the larvae and beetles, but, unlike the bugs, attack them by means 




Fig. 214. — Tachinid parasite of Col- 
orado potato-beotlc (Lydella 
doryphor(E Ril.). (After Riley.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 295 

of their powerful biting jaws. These beetles are also exceedingly 
beneficial in feeding upon many other injurious insects, and are 
among the farmers' best insect friends (Fig. 215). 

Remedies. — As an artificial remedy for this pest, Paris green 
has long been proven to be both effectual and practical. For 
small areas it may be used dry by mixing it with fifty times 
its weight of dry flour, land-plaster, or air-slaked lime, and should 
be applied while the plants are still wet with dew, either by a 
perforated can, or, better, by one of the improved powder-guns 
such as Leggett's, by which two rows of plants may be powdered 
at once. On larger areas spraying will be found more satisfac- 





FiG. 215. — Murky ground-beetle (//arpaZws caZi!7Uios us); o, its larva; b, head 
of larva showing mouthparts. (After Riley.) 



tory. One pound of Paris green and 1 pound of freshly slaked 
quicklime to 50 gallons of water will kill all the larvae, but 
often 2 to 3 pounds are necessary to destroy the beetles. 

Many growers now prefer to use arsenate of lead at from 3 to 5 
pounds to the barrel, as there is no danger of burning the foliage 
with it, and it is much more adhesive. Where Bordeaux mixture 
is not used the arsenate of lead is much preferable on account of its 
superior adhesiveness. Where Bordeaux mixture is used, arsenite 
of lime, or arsenite of lime made with soda, may be used, but these 
homemade arsenicals should not be used alone, on account of 
their burning the foliage. 

The vines should be sprayed first when they are a few incheg 
high, and the spraying repeated once or twice at intervals of ten 



29G INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

days or two weeks. The larva^ are so easily killed by arsenicals 
that potato growers no longer fear their work, but large quantities 
of Paris green are wasted by careless application, and by dusting 
unduly large amounts with poor apparatus, which not infrequently 
results in burning the foliage. For small areas a bucket or knap- 
sack pump will be found satisfactory, but for over an acre a barrel 
pump with a row attachment will prove more economical, and for 
over ten acres a geared machine spraying several rows at once will 
be needed. Cleaning up the vines and plowing potato land in the 




Fifl. 21G. — Tho convergent ladybird {Ifippodaniia rntrvcrgens): n, Sidu\t',b, 
pupa; c, larva; enlarged. (After Chittenden U. S. Dei)t. Agr.) 

fall after the crop has liecn harvested will aid in I'cducing the num- 
bers of the hibernatino- beetles. 



Flea-beetles * 

While the potatoes and tomatoes are but a few inches high they 
are often attacked by myriads of small black beetles, wdiich from 
their power of making long quick jumps are known as flea-beetles. 
They soon riddle the foliage, of ten so badly that the plants wilt, and 
replanting is necessary, particularly with tomatoes. 

Si'voral species are known to attack the potato, the two most 
common being the potato or cucumber flea-beetle (Epitrix cucum- 
eris Harris) and one which Professor H. A. Garman has styled the 
Southern Potato Flea-beetle {Epitrix fuf;ndn). The To-bacco Flea- 

* I'^umily Cltrysomeliild'. 





Fig. 217. — Field .sprayer, with modifications, adapted for potato spraying, 
by L. C. Corbett, operating at the Virginia Truck Experiment Station, 
Norfolk, Va. 

297 



298 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

beetle {Epilrix jparvula) is not uncommonly found on the vines in 
sections where tobacco is also grown, and other species do similar 
injury in other sections. All of these species arc, however, essen- 
tially the same in habits and life history, and the same remedies 
apply to all. Unfortunately, the complete life cycle of these little 
insects has never been carefully determined, so that only a general 
outline can be given. 

The potato flea-beetle * is the most destructive. It is only 
one-sixteenth inch long, jet black, except the yellowish anienna? 
and legs, and there is a deep groove across the base of the thorax 




Fig. 218. — a, potato flea-beetle; h, egg-plant flea-beetle, both greatly- 
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

(Fig. 21S, a). It seems to occur throughout the United States, 
but is more commonly injurious in the North. Eggplant and 
tobacco, as well as numerous garden vegetables are similarly 
injured. This species has commonly been called the cucumber flea- 
beetle from its specific name, l)ut it is evidently a misnomer, as it 
is much more abundant upon the potato and related plants. 

During the winter the beetles hibernate untler leaves, rubbish, 
etc., and in the spring come forth and lay their eggs upon the 
roots of some of our common weeds of the Nightshade family, 
such as the horse-nettle, Jamestown-weed, Desmodium, etc., 
in May and June. The larva; mine in the roots of these plants 
and transform to pupio in snuiU earthen cells among the roots, 
* Epitrix cucumeris Harris. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 299 

from which the beetles come forth to attack the foliage of the 
crops mentioned. There are at least two and probably three 
generations a year, but the life history of the species has not been 
carefully studied. The larvae are minute, thread-like, white 
worms. 

Occasionally the larvae mine into the tubers, doing considerable 
damage and causing " pimply " potatoes. Such injury was 
quite common in New York, in 1894, and in Colorado in 1903. 

The principal injury by the beetles is done to the young foliage 
just after it is up in the spring, when then swarm upon the plants 
and thoroughly riddle the leaves, a badly eaten leaf appearing 
as if it had been hit by a charge of fine bird-shot. The complete 
life history of the species has not been definitely determined, 
but the injury by the adults is rarely troublesome except when 
the plants are young, and the larval injury to the tubers occurs 
later in the season. 

The Eggplant Flea-beetle * so nearly resembles the previous 
species that it will not be distinguished from it but by the entomol- 
ogist. It is slightly larger, however, with the wing-covers more 
hairy, and the groove at the base of the thorax is not so distinct. 
It has much the same food-plants, but is particularly abundant 
on eggplant, and is more commonl}^ injurious in the South, below 
the Ohio and Potomac rivers. 

The Tobacco Flea-beetle f has been previously discussed 
(page 222), but should be mentioned, as it is commonly injurious 
to potato, tomato, and eggplant throughout the South, as well 
as to tobacco, and occasionally to corn and other plants. 

Control. — It has been found that Bordeaux mixture acts as 
an excellent repellant against these little beetles, and that plants 
well covered with it are not seriously injured. Inasmuch as 
it is always advisable to spray potatoes as soon as they are a 
few inches high for fungous diseases and for the Colorado potato 
beetle, by applying the spray as soon as possible after the plants 
are up they will be protected. Both potatoes and tomatoes 
should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead 
* Epitrix fuscula Cr. j Epitrix parvula Fab. 



300 LNSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

or Paris green as soon as they are a few inches high. The spray 
should be applied liberally so as to give the plants a distinct 
coating of th(; mixture. Tomatoes are particulai'ly susceptil)le 
to injury and might be dipped in arsenate of lead when planting, 
using 1 pound to 10 gallons of water. The destruction of the 
weeds upon which the larvie commonly develoj) is obviously 
important in preventing their nudtiplication. 

Where injury by the larva) is done to the tuheis, it is recom- 
mended that they be dug as soon as ])ossible, and he left 
e.\l)osed to the sun for a few hours after digging so as to harden the 
skin, before being stor(>d. If damage continues in storage, the 
tubers may be fumigated with carbon bisulfide, as recommended 
for grain insects (page 57). 

Potato-scab and Insects 

That certain forms of what is conunonl}' termed " potato- 
scab " are due to the work of insects has frequently been shown. 
In 1S!)3 Professor A. 1). I lopkiiis,* of the West \'iigiiiia Agricultural 
lv\l)eriment Station, repoi'ted some veiy cai'cfu! original investiga- 
tions upon two spcH'ies of gnats, I^Jpidupu.s scdhies Hopk. and Sridni 
sp., the larva' of which had been conclusively shown to cause 
a " scab " upon the tubers by boring into them. The larvio 
or maggots of the Potato-seal) (Inat are about one-sixth of an 
inch long, and are the young of a wingless gnat shown, very 
gi'caty enlarged, in Fig 21!). The fcnialcs deposit their eggs on 
the potatoes in storage fi'oni autunm to spi'ing, and the maggots 
hatching from them enter old scab spots or injured places. Under 
favorable conditions a generation may \)v dcveloix'd in twenty 
to twenty-five days. Later in the spriiij- the eggs are deposited 
in manure or other decomposing material, on seed potatoes or 
on growing tubers to which they may be carried on seed potatoes. 
When they ])ecome well established in a potato, it is soon des- 
troyed if they are not overoome by their mitural enemies, or 
unless the soil becomes dry, when they soon disappear. In- 

* A. D. Hopkins, Special Bulletin 2 (Vol. IV, No. 3) W. Va. Agr. Exp. 
Sta., p. 97. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 301 

fested places look very much like the oi'diuaiy scab pi-oduced 
by the scab fungus and may be readily mistaken for it. Such 
injuiy was quite general and serious in West ^'irg•inia in 1891 and 
1S92. Dr. Hopkins found that " they breed in and are especially 
common in barnyard-manure," that " excessive moisture in the 
soil has been observed to be the most favorable condition for 
their development," and that " soaking the seed-potatoes in a 
solution of corrosive sublimate previous to planting " will kill all 
the eggs and young larva', as it will also destroy the spores of 
the potato-scab fungus. 

Professor H. Carman * has also recorded the injuries of several 
species of millipedes, oi- " thousand-legged worms," Canihahi 




Fig. 219. — Potato scab-gnat {Epidnpu^ scahel Hopk.): a, fly; 
egg; /(, egg mass — much enlarged, (.\fter Hopkins.) 



aiva; (/, 



(innulata and Parajidus impressus, as causing a scab by gnawing 
into the surface of the tul)ers. Though both of these observations 
are unquestionably true, such injury has not occurred in other 
parts of the country, and it is improbable that any large portion 
of potato-scab is due to these insects. Potato-scab is a fungous 
disease, which, as already noted, may be destroyed by soaking 
the seed-potatoes in a solution of corrosive sulilimate. 



Blister-beetles f 

Long before we had made the acquaintance of the Colorado 
potato-])eetle, several species of blister-l)eetles frequently bi-ought 

* H. Carman, BuUetin (il, Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. IS. 
t Family Meloidw. 



302 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

themselves into notice by their injuries, and, therefore ;u-(> now 
known as the " okl-fashioned potato-bugs." The name of 
" bUster-l)eetles " has been ])estowed upon them because of the 
bhstering effect which they have upon the skin, they being nearly 
related to the Spanish fly, used for that purpose. 

One of the most common of these is the Striped Blister-beetle, 
which has three yellow stripes upon its wing-covers, while 
two other common forms are of a slate-black color. \ ery often 
when these beetles congregate in numbers they are a great 
nuisance, not only in the potato-patch, but upon many other 
plants of the garden or truck-farm. 

Unfortunately, they present to the farmer a very peculiar 
problem, for while the beetles are often exceedingly injurious, 
the larva) are even more beneficial, in eating large quantities of 
grasshoppers' eggs. 

Life History. — The life of these insects is unique. The female 
lays a large number of eggs in a small cavity in the earth, and 
from these hatch some small, long-legged larvae, which run about 
searching for the pod-like masses of grasshoppers' eggs, upon 
which they feed. As soon as the appetite of one of these little 
egg-hunters is appeased, he sheds his skin, and now being sur- 
rounded by food and no longer needing his long legs for running, 
in the next stage of his existence his legs become very short and 
rudimentary, and he remains almost immobile while feeding upon 
the rest of the eggs. 

Control. — Spraying with Paris green or arsenate of lead, as 
advised for the Colorado potato-beetle will kill the beetles, and 
where the vines have been regularly sprayed but little trouble 
will be had with them. Where they suddenly appear in large 
swarms in gardens or on truck land, they are often destroyed by 
a line of men and children slowly driving them with branches, as 
the beetles move but slowly. If a ditch is available it may be 
oiled, and the beetles destroyed like grasshoppers (page 108), or 
they may be driven into a windrow of straw, hay, or any inflam- 
mable rubbish and burned in it. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO POTATOES AND TOMATOES 303 

Three-lined Leaf-beetle * 

Closely related to the Colorado potato-beetle, and very 
similar to it in habits, is the Three-lined Leaf-beetle. The eggs 
may be distinguished by the fact that they are usually laid in 
rows along the midrib on the under side of the leaf, while those 
of the potato-beetle are laid indiscriminately in bunches. The 
larvae, however, may be readily distinguished from all other 
insects attacking the potato by being covered with a disgusting 
mass of their own excrement. 




Fig. 220. — Three-lined leaf-beetle (Lema trilineata Oliv.); a, larva; b, pupa; 
d, eggs; beetle at right. (After Riley.) 



There are two broods during the season, the larvae of the first 
appearing in June, and that of the second in August; but the 
beetles of the second brood do not emerge until the following 
spring. In other respects the life history is practically the same 
as that of the Colorado potato-beetle. The beetle is of a pale 
yellow color, with three l:)lack stripes on its back, and in a general 
way resembles the common striped cucumber-beetle {Diabrotica 
vittata Fab.), though it is somewhat larger and the thorax is 
decidedly constricted. 

In case it becomes necessary to destroy the blister-beetles, both 
they and the three-lined leaf-beetle may be readily disposed of by 
applying Paris green or other arsenite as advised for the Colorado 
potato-beetle. 

* Lema trilinmta Oliv. Family Chrysomelidce. 



304 LNSECT PESTS OF FARiM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Tomato Worms 

The large green horn-wonns which attack the fohage of the 
tomato are the same as those previously described which attack 
tobacco (see page 228). Usually they are not so numerous but 
that they may be readily controlled by handpicking, but if neces- 
sary the same remedial measures may used as advised for them on 
tobacco. 

The Tomato Fruitworm 

The worms which commonly Ijoi'c into the green and ripening 
tomatoes are the same as the tobacco budworm and the cotton 
bollworm (see pages 234-and 254), under which names their habits 
and life histories have Ikm-h fully described. 

Obviously tomatoes should not Ix- planted on land which has 
been in corn or cotton infested l)y this insect the previous year, 
unless it has been given thorough winter })lowing and harrowing. 

It has seemed to the writer that traj) rows of sweet corn might 
be used for protecting tomatoes as they are used with cotton, but 
no experiments seem to have been conducted which show the prac- 
ticability of the method. As the Aoung caterpillars feed a little on 
the foliage before boring into the fruit, a thorough spraying with 
arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons, will undoubtedly protect 
the tomatoes if applied as soon as the eggs are laid, and with one 
or two later applications at intervals of ten days, the exact time 
dej)ending upon the latitutle and season, as indicated by the life 
history (seepage 181). 



CHAPTER XVI 
INSECTS IXJITRIOUS TO BEAXS AND PEAS* 

The Pea-weevil f 

The common Peu-weovii occurs in ulmost all parts of the world 
where peas are grown, and is the usual cause of " buggy " peas. It 
was the cause of the abandonment of pea growing in the central 
Atlantic States as early as the middle of the eighteenth century. 
It has usually been regarded as a native of North America, having 




Fig. 221. — The pea-weevil {Briichus pisorum L.): a, adult beetle; h, larva; 
c, pupa — all enlarged. (From Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

been introduced into Europe. It does but comparatively little 
damage in more northern latitudes and for this reason seedsmen 
secure their seed peas from Canada and northern Michigan and 
Wisconsin. 

The weevil is about one-fifth inch long and about one-half 
that width, being the largest of the pea- and bean-feeding weevils 
in this country, " Its ground color is black, but it is thickly cov- 
ered with brown pubescence, variegated with black and white 

* See F. H. Chittenden, Insects Injurious to Beans and Peas, Yearbook 
U. S. Dept. Agr. for 4898, p. 233. 

f Bniciius pisorum Linn. Family Bruchidw. 

30.'j 



306 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




markings as shown in Fig. 221. The sides of the thorax are notched 
or toothed, and the abdomen, which projects beyond the wing- 
covers, is coated with whitish pubescence and marked by two black 
spots. The hind thighs are thickened and each bears two promi- 
nent teeth." 

Life History. — The winter is passed in the adult stage, the wee- 
^,^^ vils making their appear- 

mv ^ ^ * : 7 ance in the fields when the 

peas are in blossom. The 
eggs arc laid singly upon 
the surface of the pods, 
attached by a sticky fluid 
which becomes white when 
dry. The egg is about one- 
twentieth of an inch long 
by one-third that width, of 
a yellow color, as shown in 
Fig. 222. 

Fig. 222.— The pea-weevil: a, egg on pod; Upon hatching, the 

6, cross-section of opening of larval mine; i i xu v, 

, 1 • ■ -A t young larva bores through 

c, young larva and opening on inside of -' >= => 

pod by which it has entered — enlarged the pod and into the seed. 

d d, d eggs on pod, slightly enlarged; j^ ^j^-g ^^ ^j^^ j^^^.^^ j^^^ 

/, leg oi larva; g, prothoracic spurious ^ 

processes— more enlarged. (After Chit- some very small false legs 

tenden, U. S. Dept Agr.) ^nd two plates and six 

strong spines on the thorax, which aid it in getting through the 
pod. Upon entering the seed the skin is shed and these legs, 
plates and spines are lost. The larva feeds upon the seed, 
growing rapidly. When full grown it appears as at h, Fig. 221. 
It resembles a maggot in general appearance, being white, 
except the small mouth-parts, which are brown; is fleshy, nearly 
cylindrical and strongly wrinkled, with three pairs of very 
short stubby legs. It is about one-fourth an inch long and half 
as broad. Before its final molt the larva eats a round hole in the 
pea, leaving but a thin membrane as a covering. It then lines the 
inside of the pea with a glue-like substance, and within this cell 
transforms to the pupa. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 307 

The pupa is white, showing the notches at the sides of the 
thorax, but otherwise is not dissimilar from many weevil pupae. 
The length of the pupal stage varies from nine to seventeen or 
more days. In more southern latitudes a large part of the beetles 
leave the seed in August, but in the North they all remain in the 
seed over winter, and are planted with the seed. There is but one 
generation a year and this species does not breed in dry peas. 

Injury. — Dr. James Fletcher has stated that this pest is now 
doing over $1,000,000 damage in Ontario alone annually, and that 
the growing of peas has been abandoned in considerable areas of 
that province. In large peas about one-sixth of the food content 
is destroyed, while in smaller varieties fully one-half. Not only 
this, but in eating canned green peas one frequently devours sev- 
eral small larvae in each mouthful, unawares, as but a small dark 
speck indicates their presence in the green pea. In the dry seed 
the holes made by the larvae can be seen. But 12 to 18 per cent of 
infested seed will produce plants, which are later in developing and 
do not yield as well as those unaffected. 

Enemies. — The Baltimore oriole has been recorded as feeding 
on the grubs by splitting open the pods, and the crow blackbird is 
said to devour many of the beetles in the spring. Practically no 
parasites or predaceous insects are known to prey upon it, so that 
it has every opportunit}- for doing serious injury. 

Control. — Holding over Seed. — One of the best means of 
destroying the weevils where but a few peas are concerned and cir- 
cumstances will permit, is to simply hold them over for a season, 
stored in a tight sack or box, before planting. As the weevils will 
not breed in the dried peas they die in the sack and are thus caught. 
Peas should always be bagged up and sacks tied immediately after 
threshing. 

Late Planting. — Comparative immunity from injury is claimed 
by some growers for late-planted peas. Dr. F. H. Chittenden is 
inclined to the behef that in some localities, such as Washington, 
D.C., where two crops can be grown in a year, that late planting is 
all necessary to secure sound seed stock. 

Treating with Kerosene. — The Canadians have found that 



308 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

kerosene may be used to destroy the weevils. Dr. Fletcher states : 
"A remedy which has been used Ijy many farmers with satisfaction 
is to drench the s^ed with coal oil, usinji' about a half a gallon to the 
barrel, or five jjushels of peas. \Miilf apjjlying the coal oil (kero- 
sene) the seed should be placed on the floor, where it can be shoveled 
over constantly to insure the treatment of all the grain." 

Scalding Seed. — " When peas are found to contain live weevils 
at the time of sowing, these may be destroyed l^y simply pouring 
them into a pot of scalding water. The water should be drained 
off at once or the seed cooled by turning in cold water." — Fletcher. 

Heat. — Dr. Chittenden states that it has been found that a tem- 
perature of 145° F. will kill the weevils in the seed without injury 
to the germinating property of the seed. 

Fumigation. — This is undoubtedly the best means of destroy- 
ing the weevils, and is now coming into general use. Dr. Fletchei', 
who has made the most thorough studies of practical methods for 
controlling this pest, states : " Fumigation with bisulfide of car- 
lion is a sure remedy. When properl}- done, either in specially 
constructed buildings known as ' bug-houses ' or in any tight l)in, 
every weevil is sureh' killed if the seed containing them is fumi- 
gated for forty-eight hours with this chemical, using 1 pound by 
weight to every 100 bushels of seed, or, in smaller quan ities, 1 
ounce to every 100 pounds. For the treatment of small quantities 
of seed, particularly by farmers, I have found that an ordinary 
coal-oil barrel is very convenient. This will hold about o bushels, 
or 300 pounds of seed, which may be treated with 3 ounces of bisul- 
fide of carbon. Care must be taken to close up the top tight 1 v. 
This is best done with a cap made specially for the purpose, but 
fine sacks laid smoothly on the top, over which boards are placed 
with a weight on them, will answer. Fumigation with bisulfide 
of carbon is, I believe, the remedy most to be relied upon in this 
campaign. It is perfectly effective, is now regularly used by the 
large seed merchants, and in future will be much more generally 
used." 

(For directions foi' use of l)isulfid(' of carbon and caution 
concerning it, see [ age T)?.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 



309 



The Common Bean-weevil * 

Throughout the United States the common Bean-weevil is the 
principal enemy of the bean. The small, white, footless grubs 
feed within the beans, both in the field and in storage, and trans- 
form to the common brown-gray weevils which infest white beans. 
In the South its attacks are so serious that it is almost impossible 
to secure a crop uninfested, so that most of the beans both for 
seed and consumption come from the North. Not until 1870 did 
injury by this insect attract attention in the United States, but 
now it occurs throughout our borders and is practically cosmopol- 




FiG. 223. — The common bean-weevil (Bruchus obtectus Say): «, beetle; b, 
larva; c, pupa — all greatly enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. D. Agr.) 



itan in its distribution. It is })robably a native of Central or 
South America. 

The adult weevil is aljout one-eighth of an inch long and is cov- 
ered with a fine l)rown-gray or olive j)ul)escence, giving it that 
color, while the wing-covers are nujttlcd as shown in Fig. 223, a. It 
may be distingviished from the pea-weevil Ijy its longer thorax and 
by the tAvo small teeth next to the large tooth at the tip of the 
thighs. 

Life Histori/. — In the field the eggs are laid upon or are inserted 
in the bean-pod through holes made by the female or such open- 

* Bruchus obtectus Say. Family Bruchidae. 



310 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

ings as are caused by its drying and splitting (Fig. 224, h, c). In 
shelled beans the eggs are placed loosely among them or in the 
exit holes of the beetles. The young larva hatching from the egg 
has long, slender legs, but with the first molt these are lost and 
when full grown it is a fat grub as shown in Fig. 223, b. The pupal 
stage is passed in an oval cell made by the larva within the l^ean. 
Experiments have shown that the eggs hatch in from five days in 
the hottest to twenty days in cooler weather; the larval stage 
requires eleven to forty-two days, and the pupal stage five to eigh- 




FiG. 224. — The bean-weevil; a, side view of beetle; 5, section of bean pod 
showing slit for deposition of egg; c, part of inside of pod showing egg- 
mass inserted through slit — all enlarged. (After Riley and Chittenden, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

teen days. Thus the whole life cycle will extend over a period of 
from twenty-one to eighty days, depending upon the season and 
locality. Probably a out six generations occur annually in the 
District of Columbia, and a less numlxM- furth(>r north. 

" Unlike the pea-weevil, a large number of individuals will 
develop in a ])ean, as many as twenty-eight having beenf ound 
within a single seed. It will tluis be readily seen that the first out- 
door generation or any single indoor generation is capable of 
exhausting seed and completely ruining it for food or planting or 
any other practical purpose, except perhaps as hog feed." 

" The beetles begin to issue from Ijcans in the field in a climate 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 



311 



like that of the District of Cohimbia ... as early as October, 
when in the natural course of events the eggs for a new brood 
would be deposited in such pods as had cracked open, so as to 
expose the seeds within." 

" Weevilly " seed should never be planted, as but a small per 
cent of it will germinate and the vitality of that germinating is 
deficient. Professor Popenoe showed in experiments at Manhattan, 
Kan., that only 50 per cent of the infested seed used germinated, 
that only 30 per cent could ha e grown further, and that even 
these would have produced plants of little vigor or productive- 
ness. (Quotations and acts from Chittenden, I.e.) 

Remedies. — No methods are known of preventing injury in the 
field, and all remedial measures must be applied to the insects in 
the stored seed. As this pecies breeds in the stored seed, it is use- 
less to hold it over as for the pea-weevil, and the quicker infested 
seed is treated the better. Either heat, or better, fumigation, as 
described for the pea-weevil, should be used. When ready to plant, 
seed should ho thrown lightly into water, when that baflly infested 
will float and can be separated and destroyed. 



Other Bean-weevils 

TJtc Cow-pea ireevil* — This species may l^e readily recognized 
by the two large, raised 
white lobes at the base of 
the thorax and the strongly 
pectinate antennse of the 
maleasshowaiinFig. 225, a. 
The cow-pea is the favorite 
food-plant of this and the 
following species, but peas 
and various sorts of beans 
are also attacked. This 
species is a southern form, 
but seems to be spreading, 
incident to the more wide- 




Fk;. 22.5. — The cow-pea weevil {Bruchus chi- 
nensis L.): a, adult male; b, egg; c, young 
larva; d, front view of head of jsame; e, 
thoracic leg of same;— a, much enlarged; 
b, e, more enlarged. (After Chittenden, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



■■' Bruchus chinensis Linn. 



312 INSECT PPJSTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

spread growth of the cow pea. Liko tho common hean-weovil it is 
pittctically cosmopolitan in its distrihutioii, Imt is most injurious 




Fio, 22ti. — TliP four-H|)i)tted l»«'aii-w<'i'vil: <i, Itcr-tlc; /*, l;iiva; r, pupa— all 
enlarK«'<l. (After (!hitlcii<l<'ii, (l.S. Dcpt. Aki') 

in tropical regions. Tho life history and remedial measures are 
practically the same as for the common hean-weevil. 

TheFour-SiuitIrd Hcnn -weevil* -The wing-covers of this species 




FlQ. 227. — The four-Hputlcd hfan-wccvil: a, covv-pca ^liouiiin IkjIc.-i iiiadc 
by weevils in their cHcaiJe from .seed, al«o eggs dejjo.sited on surface; h, 
''KK! '". y*Ji"'B hirva; tt, head of same; e, prothoracic leg; /, spine above 
Hpira(!le of first abdominal segment — a, twice natural size; b, f, greatly 
enlargefl. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

arc covered with gra}' and white puhescenco and f<nii' darker si)ols 
from wliich the species is named. It is moi'e slender than the pre- 
ceding species and the antenna- of the male are not pectinate. 

♦ linichii.s (jiUKlriniticuhitiis l'ii\>. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 313 

The markings are quite variable, but the most common form is 
that shown in Fig. 226. This is an exotic species occurring from 
Mexico to Brazil and in the Mediterranean countries. In 1885 it 
was found at the Atlanta Cotton Exposition in black-eyed beans 
from Texas, and has since become acclimated as far north as Iowa. 
It seems to breed more readily in fresh and slightly moist seed and, 
like the preceding species, its work in stored beans seems to soon 
cause decomposition and a consequent rise of temperature. The 
life history and remedial measures are similar to those of the bean- 
weevil. 

The European Bean-weecil * was imported into New York and 
New Jersey in 1870, at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 
1893, and has been observed at College Station, Texas, but does 
not seem to have become established in this country. It closely 
resembles the pea-weevil in appearance and life history. 

The Bean Leaf-beetle f 

Small yellowish or reddish beetles, marked with black, as 
shown in P'ig. 228, and from one-seventh to one-fifth inch 
long, are often found eating the foliage of beans, and are commonly 
known as Bean Leaf-beetles. The species occurs throughout the 
United States east of the Rockies, but has been chiefly injurious 
in the Middle and Southern States. Besides beans, the beetles 
feed upon cow-peas and various native plants such as beggar- 
weed or tickseed, tick trefoil {Meibomia), bush-clover {Lespedeza), 
and hog-peanut {Falcata). They usually become quite numerous 
before they are observed, for during most of the day they rest or 
feed on the under sides of the leaves. They are sluggish and 
seldom fly, and when disturbed often drop to the ground, though 
they soon crawl back to the plant. Large round holes are eaten 
in the foliage until finally nothing but the veins and midrib of a 
leaf is left, the maimer of defoliation being quite characteristic 
of this species. Low-growing and dwarf varieties are worse injured, 
as pole beans put out new leaves after the injury has stopped. 

* Bruchus rufimanus Boh. 

t Ceratoma trifurcata Forst. Family Chry^omeUdcp. 



314 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Life History. — The adult beetles hibernate in or near the bean- 
fields and emerge from April to June according to the latitude. 
Minute orange-colored eggs are laid near the stem of the plant, 
just below the surface of the soil, in clusters of six to ten or more, 
and hatch in from five to eight days. The young larvae feed upon 
the stem and roots, becoming full grown in six or seven weeks. 
When grown the larva is about three-tenths an inch long, 
about one-eighth as wide, cylindrical, milk-white in color, with 
dark head and anal segment, as shown enlarged six times in Fig. 




Fig. 228. — The bean leaf-beetle (Ceratoma trifurcata Forst.): a, adult 
beetle; b, pupa; c, larva; d, side view anal segment of larva; e, leg of 
same; /, egg — a, b, c, enlarged about six times; d, c, f, more enlarged. 
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

228. The pupa (Fig. 228, b) is pure white, and from it the beetle 
emerges in five to eight days. Thus, in the District of Columbia, the 
whole life cycle requires six to nine weeks, depending upon heat 
and moisture. In the North there is probably l^ut one generation 
a year; in Maryland and Virginia one generation develops in 
July and another in September; while in the Gulf States there 
are probably three generations, as beetles are numerous in October. 
Remedies. — Spraying with arsenical poisons as for the bean 
ladybird (page 316) is the most effectual means of controlling 
the pest when abundant, but they should be applied early to avoid 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 



315 



the poison on beans to be eaten green. 
Owing to the sluggishness of the beetles 
they may be handpicked in small gar- 
dens. Clean culture and careful weed- 
ing of native food-plants near cultivated 
crops such as tick-trefoil and bush- 
clover, are most important. 

The Bean Ladybird * 

The Bean Ladybird is the most 
serious enemy of beans in Colorado, 
New Mexico, Arizona, and Western 
Kansas, whence it migrated from 
Mexico. It is an interesting insect in 
that onl}" two other native species of 
this family of beetles (Cocci nellidcr) feed 
upon vegetation, the normal food of the 
family being plant-lice, scale insects, 
and soft-bodied larvae. 

Professor C. P. Gillette f describes 
it as follows : 

" The beetle (Fig. 229, A) is oval in 
outline, nearly one-third an inch in 
length by one-fifth an inch in breadth, 
of a light yellow to a yellowish-brown 
color and has eight small black spots on 
each wing-cover. The mature larva is 
about the same length as the beetle, is 
of light yellow color and is covered with 
stout branched spines that are black at 
their tips, a larva being shown at C, 
Fig. 229. The larva when fully grown 
fastens the posterior end of its body to 
the under side of a leaf and then in a 




Fig. 229.— The bean lady- 
bird {Epilachna variveslis 
Muls.) : a, adult beetle ; b, 
pupa; c, larva; d, bean pod 
showing injury. (After 
Gillette, Colo. Agr. Exp. 
Sta.) 



* Epilachna varivestis Muls. Family CoccinelUdce. 
t Bulletin 19, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 25. 



316 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

few days shods its outer skin containing the spines and changes to 
the pupa state (Fig. 229, B). From these pupic the beetles appear 
a few days later. They live over winter, and appear about as 
soon as the beans are up in the garden or field and begin to feed 
upon the leaves, on the under side of which they deposit their 
yellowish-brown eggs in large clusters after the manner of the 
'Colorado potato lieetlc.' The spiny little lai'vtc that hatch 
from these eggs remain on the under side of the leaves, which they 
skeletonize in feeding. The beetles eat through the veins of the 
leaves and do not skeletonize them. They also eat into and destroy 
the green pods, as shown in Fig. 229, D. There is also one brood 
of this insect in a season. 

Control. — Paris green dusted upon the j)lants diluted with 
100 {)arts of air-slaked lime or flour is recommended, or it may be 
applied with Bordeaux mixture, 1 pound to 200 gallons, but much 
care nmst be used not to burn the foliage, which seems to be very 
susceptible to the arsenic. Arsenate of lead would probably 
obviate this. In spraying, an underspray nozzle must be used 
to reach under the leaves. Dilute kerosene emulsion will kill 
the larva-, but must also be used with caution to avoid injury to 
the plant. Whaleoil soap might be as effective and less injurious 
to the plant. Upon small gardens handpicking of the adult 
beetles as soon as they appear in the spring will probably be the 
surest means of combating them, ("leaning up the old patch and 
plowing it under will doul)tless aid in preventing successful 
hibernation. 

Blister-beetles. 

Several species of elongate, grayish, l)lack or l)right green 
blister-beetles feed ii\ large luimbers upon bean foliage. The 
general life history, h;ibits, and i-f-mediVs have been alread}' 
described. (See pages 107, ;iOl.) 

The Ash-gray Blisler-beelk'.'^ — This is the most common species 
affecting beans in the East and westward to Kansas and Nebraska. 
The beetle is a uniform asli-gray color ami of the form shown in 

* Macrobasis unicolor Kby. 



INSECTS TN.TTTRIOTTS TO BEANS AND PEAS 



317 



Fig. 230. The l)eetles attack this and other legumes in immense 
swarms, liddling the forest in a few days if not cheeked, and 
appear from tlie middle of June to the middle of July. 

Nnttairs IjUsler-becilc.'^ — This species occurs from tlie Miss- 
issippi west to the Rockies, thi'ougii the region of the Missouri 
Valley, and north to the Northwest Territories, where it seems to 
l)e particularly destructive to beams, though affecting many 
garden vegetables. The life history is not known, but is probably 





Fig. 230— The ash-gray blister-beetle Fig. 231.— Nuttall's blister-beetle 

(Macrobasis unlcolor Khy.): iemale [Cantharis nuttalli) Say: female 

beetle at right, twice natural size; beetle, enlarged one-third. (After 

male antenna at left, greatly en- Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 
larged. (After Chittenden, XT, S. 
Dept. Agr.) 

similar to that of other species, as the beetles appear about July 1st. 
in years following severe outbreaks of grasshoppers. Owing to 
the rapidity with which this species works and the large numbers, 
poisons will be of little avail and mechanical measures must be 
omploj-ed for their destruction. 
Control. — See page 302. 

The Bean-aphis f 

" Crowded together in clusters upon the top of the stalks 
and under side of the leaves of the English bean, the puppy 
dahlia, and several other plants, a small black plant-louse with 

* Cantharis nuttalli Say. 

t Aphis rnmlcia Linn. FamWy Aphirlid(F. 



318 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

pale shanks, the pupae with a row of mealy white spots along each 
side of the back." — Fitch. 

This is an old European pest of the bean, where it is known as 
the black dolphin, collier, and black fly, and has sometimes 
caused the entire destruction of a crop. In the United States 
it probably occurs wherever beans are grown, having been reported 
from New York, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and Colorado. The 
species is probably best known as affecting various species of 
dock, upon the leaves of which it occurs commonly in large num- 
bers. Shepherd's purse, pigweed, the " burning bush " {Euony- 
nius europoeus and ntropurpurus), and the snowball bush are also 
commonly infested. 

Life History. — The life history was first tiescribed most inter- 
estingly b}^ Dr. Fitch in his 13th Report * and has since been 
confirmed by Osborne and Sirrine.f The eggs are laid in the fall 
around the buds of the wahoo or " burning bush " {Euonymus 
at ro pur pur us), and possibly upon the snowball. The first gen- 
eration or two multiply upon these plants and then spread to 
common weeds such as shepherd's purse, pigweed, dock, etc. 
during the latter part of May and early June, from which they 
again migrate to beans when that crop is available. During 
the summer the aphides multiply upon these food-plants vivipar- 
ously, i.e., by giving birth to live young, all being females, as is the 
rule with aphides; but al)out the middle of September, in Iowa, 
winged males and females migrate back to the wahoo. 

Description. — The wingless females are about one-tenth an 
inch long, pear-shaped, sooty black, frequently marked with 
pruinose whitish dots along each side of the back. The antennae 
are about half the length of the body, yellowish-white, except 
toward the tips and the two basal segments, which are black. 
Honey tubes short, scarcely half as long as from their bases to 
tip of abdomen. Tail half as long as the honey tubes. 

The winged females are glossy black, one-twelfth an inch 

* Fitch, 13th Report on the Noxious, Beneficial and other Insects of the 
State of New York, Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc, 1869, p. 49.5. 

t Osbom and Sirrine, Bulletin 23, Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 901, 1894. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 319 

long to the tip of the abdomen and twice that length to the tip 
of the closed wings. The abdomen lacks the white spots of the 
wingless females and puptE. Legs are black, except shanks, 
which are whitish with dark tips. Otherwise the winged form 
resembles quite closely the wingless form. The black color 
and white spots on the abdomen of the wingless females and 
pupse will readily distinguish the species from other aphides on 
beans. 

Control. — Spraying with dilute kerosene emulsion has proven 
the best means of combating the pest according to Osborn and 
Sirrine, diluting the stock solution fifteen times, or so the spray- 
ing mixture will contain about 5 per cent of kerosene. It seems 
that the foliage of the bean is quite susceptible to injury from any 
free kerosene, and probably whaleoil soap 1 pound to 5 or 6 gal- 
lons, would prove safer and equally efficient. As it is frequently 
necessary to spray beans with Bordeaux mixture or other fun- 
gicides for fungous diseases, the whaleoil soap might be readily 
sprayed at the same time. 

The Gray Hair-streak Butterfly * 

The caterpillars of the Gray Hair-streak Butterfi}- have been 
noticed injuring beans, peas and cow-peas, for a number of years 
throughout the United States, but the injury is usually local and 
not often serious. The caterpillar is about one-half an inch long, 
decidedly flattened, somewhat oval, bright green, with head 
retracted in the thorax, and covered with short hairs, which give it 
a velvety appearance. The adult butterfly is a handsome bluish- 
black butterfly with red anal spots as shown in Fig. 177. The 
caterpillar has been a serious enemy of hops, and in the South 
attacks cotton squares, being termed the cotton square-borer, 
but the pods of legumes seem to l^e the preferred food. Where 
injury recurs, thorough spraying with Paris green or arsenate 
of lead as the pods are forming will doubtless hold the larvae in 
check, as the eggs are laid upon the foliage and the young larvae 

* Uranotes melinus Hubn. Family Lycoenidce. 



320 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

feed somewhat upon it tuicl will secure enouj^h of the surface of 
the pods in entering to effectively poison I hem if the pods are well 
coated.* 

The Seed-corn Maggot f 

This insect has been termed the Seed-corn Maggot on account 
of its frequent injuries to early seed-corn, but in recent years it 
has often seriously injured the seeds of beans and peas, on account 
of which it has been termed the " bean-fiy," while cabbage, 




7 ^ fy 



Fig. 232. — Seed-corn maggot {Pegomya fiiscia'ps): a, nialc Hy, durtfai view; 
b, female, lateral view; c, head of female from above; d, larva, from side; 
e, anal segment of larva; /, anal spiracles; (/, cephalic .spiracles: h, pupa- 
rium — all much enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. 8. Dcpl. Agr.) 

turnip, radish, onions, beets and seed potatoes are among its 
other food-plants. 

The species is of European origin, and was firsl n()1('(l in this 
country by Dr. Asa Fitch in 1856. Since then il has brcome 
distributed throughout the United States fiom Minnesota to 
Texas and eastward. 

The adult flies closely resemble the lool -maggots affecting 

*See " In.sect Life,'' Vol. \'II, p. :{.')1. Ciiitteiidcii, Bullclin :5:i, Div.Enl., 
U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 101; Sanderson, Farmers' Bullelin, l'. S. Dept. Agr., 
223, p. 17, and Bulletin 57, Bureau Entomology, p. 10. 

f Pegomya fuscicepa Zctt. Family Anthomyidce. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 321 

the cabbage and onion and are about one-fifth an mch long. 
The male may ])e distlnguislied fiom nearly related species by a 
row of nearly ernial, short bristles on the inner side of the hind 
tibiae or shanks. 

The life history of the species has not been carefully observed, 
but is probably similar to that of other root-maggots. The 
flies deposit their eggs either upon the young seedling just as it 
appears above ground, or probably more often on the seed itself. 
Injury is called to attention l^y the seed failing to germinate, 
which, when examined, is found to contain one or more small 
white maggots, which have destroyed the germ or the young 
seedling. Thus in 1895, large areas of beans were destroyed in 
Minnesota.* 

The maggots are about one-fourth an inch long, slightly 
smaller than the onion-maggot, fiom which they may be dis- 
tinguished by the tubercles of the anal segment. 

Control.— It has been noted that injury often occurs where 
stable manure has been turned under, and it ma}' ho possil)le 
that the flies are attracted to it to oviposit or that they are 
attracted by decaying seed. In preventing attacks of I'oot- 
maggots it would seem advisable to apply stable manure the 
previous fall so that it ma>' liecome well rotted and incorporated 
into the soil before seeding. Rolling the seed-bed after planting 
might also ])e of value in preventing the access of the flies to the 
seed. 

Applications of commercial fertilizers which will ensure a 
quick growth of the seedling are advisable. The use of carbolic acid 
emulsion and sand and kerosene upon the surface of the seed-bed 
after planting and as the seedlings are appearing, as advised 
for the cabbage root-maggot (see page 352), will also be of value. 
Inasmuch as the injur}' is sporadic and affects the seed before it 
can be readily detected, reliance must be placed chiefly upon 
general cultural methods as outlined above and others which 

* See Lugger, Bulletin 43, Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 207 (l.st Rept. Minn. 
State Entomologist.) See Circular 63, and Bulletin 33, p: 84, Bureau of 
Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



322 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

a better knowledge of the life history of the pest will undoubtedly 
suggest. 

The Pea-aphis * 

Large green plant-lice often become so abundant on the foliage 
and pods of garden-peas as to completely kill the plants. Prior 





*-^ 


^ 


^ 




y^ ^r^^^^B 


\ 


\ 








« 


I 


^^ 


\ 




'fe' - 


V 







Fig. 233.— The pea-aphis {Macrosiphum pisi Kalt): winged and wingless 
viviparous females and young — enlarged. 

to 1899 the pea-aphis had not been a serious pest in this country, 
but during that and the following season it caused a loss of several 
million dollars to pea-growers on the Atlantic coast from North 

* Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. Family Aphididce. See Chittenden, Circular 
43, Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; Sanderson, Bulletin 49, Del. Agr. Exp. 
Sta.; Folsom. Bulletin 134. 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 323 

Carolina to Nova Scotia and as far west as Wisconsin, especially 
where peas were extensively grown for canning. During 1901 
injury was by no means as serious, and has materially decreased 
since then, though spoi-adic injury occurs almost every year in some 
section. General injury occurs only periodically for reasons men- 
tioned below. The pest seems to occur throughout the States east 
of the 100th meridian and possibly further west. It is an old 
enemy of peas in England, where it destroyed the crop as long ago 
as 1810, and it has long been known in Europe as an enemy of 
peas, clovers, vetches and related plants. 

Both wingless and winged aphides occur together throughout 
the season, the latter predominating whenever food becomes scarce. 
The winged forms are from one-eighth to one-seventh of an inch 
long, with wings expanding two-fifths of an inch. The body is a 
pea-green color, light brownish between the wings and on the head, 
the eyes are red, and the legs, antennae and honey tubes are yellow- 
ish, tipped with black. The wingless females are similar in size and 
color, but are much broader across the al^domen, and the honey 
tubes are somewhat larger. The mouth-parts of the pea-aphis are 
of the sucking type, and it secures its food by puncturing and suck- 
ing up the juices of the plant. The plant is thus injured by the 
large number of aphides sucking out its juices and causing it to 
wilt and die. 

Life History. — The aphides pass the winter on clovei- and 
vetches, and often increase upon clover so as to do it serious 
injury, as described on page 211. Where peas area vailable the 
winged females usually migrate to them about the time peas are 
6 or 8 inches high, and give Ijirth to live young, which develop into 
wingless viviparous females. These females, as do those of sub- 
sequent broods throughout the summer, give birth to live young, 
and reproduction goes on at a rapid rate. According to the obser- 
vations of Mr. R. L. Webster, in central Illinois, tui aphid becomes 
grown about eleven days after it is born, lives about twenty-five 
days and gives birth to about fifty young, though under favorable 
conditions over one hundred are frequently born. Sixteen genera- 
tions have lieen observed from March 23d to October 4th. Winged 



324 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

aphides develop as often as the food-phmt becomes overcrowded 
and it is necessary to migrate to avoid starvation. 

By midsummer, with the harvesting of the peas, most of the 
aphides upon them have been destroyed by predaceous and para- 
sitic insects and disease, and the}- are not observed during late sum- 
mer unless they have been subsisting on clover throughout the 
season, when they sometimes destroy the crop in August, as has 




Fig. 2.34. — Tho pea-aphis on stems of red clover — natural size. (After 

Folsom.) , 



been observed in Illinois. In early fall they often become com- 
mon again on late garden peas, and late in October they migrate 
to clover. Fewer young are born as the weather gets colder in 
the fall, and the aphides never become numerous enough to do any 
injury at that season. Late in October and early November — in 
the Middle States — as the aphides are migrating to clover, winged 
males appear, and some of the wingless females developing on 
clover produce eggs. The winged males are siinihu' in size and color 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 325 

to the migratory females, though slightly darker, and have three or 
four dark spots along the sides of the abdomen and a deep brown 
dash on either side of the back of each abdominal segment. The 
oval eggs are about one-fiftieth inch long~ jet black, and are 
deposited on the lower leaves or stems of clover, and hatch as it 
commences to grow in the spring. In central Illinois they were 
observed to hatch March 23d, and the }()ung l)ecani(' full grown 
and commenced reproduction on April otli, living until j\Iay 12th. 
In southern Maryland and further south many of the viviparous 
females live over winter on the clover and connnence to reproduce 
again in the spring, no eggs having been observed in that latitude, 
but in central Illinois and northward, the females are probably 
entirely destroyed b}^ the cokl and only the eggs survive. 

Natural Enemies. — From o to 10 per cent of the aphides are 
normally destroyed by little wasp-like flies of the genus Aphidius, 
whose larvae live within the aphides. A number of the more com- 
mon ladybird-beetles,* syrphus-flies,t and lace-winged flies, J which 
commonly prey upon aphides, destroy large numbers of the pests, 
but their work comes so late in the season that the peas are seri- 
ously injured long before the aphides are checked by them, though 
they might prevent a reappearance the next year. 

The most important enemy of the pea-aphis is a fungous dis- 
ease (Empusa aphidis) which is undoubtedly the principal factor 
in its natural control. The most probable explanation of the 
remarkable outbreak of the pea-aphis in 1899 and 1900 seems to be 
that, due to two exceptionally dry springs, the fungus was unable 
to develop, as it propagates best in damp weather, and the aphides 
increased unchecked. Though occasional individual aphides were 
found killed by the fungus early in the season, not until .June 11, 
1900, were diseased aphides found in any quantit}', but after that 
so swiftly did the disease destroy them that a week later but few 
aphides were to be found and almost all were diseased. Proljablv 
this fungus usually destroys the aphides on clovc^r before they have 
become excessively numerous or ha\e migrated to peas. 

* Family CoccinelUdce. t Family Syrphidic. 

X Family Chrysopidoe. Concerning these predaceous insects, see p, 9. 



326 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Control. — Inasmuch as the aphides spread from peas to clover, 
the latter crop should not be planted near peas when avoidable. 
In the spring the aphides should be carefull}' observed on the 
clover and if they become excessively abundant, the only way to 
prevent their migration to peas is to plow under the clover deeply 
and roll the field. 

Highly fertilized land in which the moisture is retained by fre- 
quent cultivation very often enables a crop to mature in spite of 
moderate injury. Peas sown broadcast or planted in 8-inch 
drills have been much more seriously injured than those planted 
in rows 18 to 30 inches apart and cultivated, and those planted 
close together afford no opportunity for brushing or cultivating 
as described below. 

Early varieties of peas have practically escaped injury where 
late varieties have been wholly destroyed, so that it is obvious that 
only the earliest varieties should be grown where injury is antici- 
pated. 

Early in 1900 Professor W. G. Johnson found that when peas 
were planted in rows that the aphides could be readily knocked from 
the vines by means of brushing with a branch, and that by follow- 
ing the brushes with cultivators, the aphides would be covered with 
earth and destroyed, either by suffocation or by the heat of the 
soil. Where the air temperature is 95° F. the soil will be nearly 
120°, and aphides brushed onto it will be actually roasted to death 
in a few minutes. The cultivation should not be repeated for 
aliout three days, as it requires about that time for the d(\struction 
of the insects covered with earth, if it is not hot enough to kill 
them at once. By this method large areas of peas have been saved 
from destruction, but it was found that where the soil was moist 
it would form small clods after cultivation and that the aphides 
would merely crawl out from under them. 

To meet this difficulty Professor Johnson devised a pan into 
which the aphides might be brushed and destroyed. This pan is mod- 
elled after the hopper-dozers used in the West for catching grass- 
hoppers, and consists of a long, shallow pan, the width of the dis- 
tance between the rows and 5 or 6 inches deep. A little water is 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 



327 



placed in the bottom and covered with a film of kerosene. The 
pan is drawn between the rows while a boy on each side brushes 
the aphides into it with a branch as shown in Fig. 235. The pans 
are easily made from galvanized iron and may be operated at 
small cost. 

Though the above methods will destroy quantities of the 
aphides and thus prevent the destruction of the crop, they do not 




Fig. 2.35. — Showing the structure of pan and use of it with brushes against 
the pea louse. This field was saved by its use. (After W, G. Johnson.) 

dislodge the young aphides in the terminals, and therefore cannot 
be relied upon to prevent all injury. Practical field tests have 
shown that this may be done by spraying with whale-oil soap, I 
pound to 6 gallons of water. In small gardens this may be applied 
by means of bucket or knapsack pumps, and on small acreages 
with a barrel sprayer with a row-spraj'ing attachment having noz- 
zles arranged so that the vines will be thoroughly covei'ed from 
each side. The spray must be applied with considerable pressure 



328 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

so as to force it into the terminals. For large fields a Xew Jersey 
grower devised a traction sprayer covering three rows * which 
applied the material at a cost of 12. 50 an acre for labor and materials. 
To be effective spraying should ho commenced as soon as aphides 
are found generally distiibuted over the plants. Kerosene emul- 
sion may l)e used on a small scale, if carefully made, but more or 
less injury has resulted where it has been used extensively. Prob- 
ably many of the tobacco preparations now on the market would 
effectively destroy the aphides and would not injure the vines. 



The Pea-moth t 

The Pea-moth is an old pest in Europe, whence it was imported 
into Canada, where it has fr(>quently done considerable mischief. 

It is known to occur in the 



ftS^I 







rti^.- 



Fir;. 2.'5t). — The ]iea-moth (Seniasia 
iiicirkiuta Steph.): moth above. 



largo pea-growing sections of 
Xcnv l^runswick, Xova Scotia 
and Ontai'io, where it first at- 
tracted attention near Toronto 
in 1S93, and was found in the 
pea-growing section of Michigan 
in 1908. The wings of the adult 
moth expand about one-half 
an inch, the fore-wings being 
" dark, fuscous or dusky, tinged 



l,,,va below-about throe timos ^^.j^j^ ^^.^^.j.^^. ,^j.^^^.^^ .^^^^^ mottled 

natural size. (After Chittenden, 

U. S. Dept. Agr.) with white," the hind-wings 

being a uniform fuscous with a 
rather long iimcr fi-ingc of haii's, as shown in Fig. 36. 

The females may b(^ found (lying around pea-blossoms soon 
aftei- suns(>t, and deposit one to three eggs on young pods. The 
caterpillar hatches in al)out foin'teen days, according to European 
observations, and attacks \\\v foiniing seed. Affected pods usu- 
ally ripen early. The larva is whitish-yellow with apale brown head 

* For descrijilioii and fitjure, see lotli Annual Rept . Del. Agr. Exp. Sta., 
pp. 1(>S-172. 

f Semasia vl(jrinmn Steph. Family Tortrlcidce. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEANS AND PEAS 329 

and thoracic plate, and about one-half an inch long when full 
grown. With the opening of the pod the larva crawls out and 
enters the earth, where it spins a very thin silken cocoon. The 
length of the pupal stage and the method of hibernation do not 
s(>em to be well established. Very early and very late varieties 
are l^ut little injured. 

Remedies. — This suggests one of the best means of handling 
this pest to be the growing of early varieties, such as Alaska, 
American Wonder, Gregory's Surprise, Nott's Excelsior, and 
McLean's Little Gem. If the crop is known to be infested, clean 
up the vines and burn them as soon as it is picked. Dr. Fletcher 
has made some experiments in spraying for this pest which seem 
to promise success. One pound of Paris green to 100 gallons of 
water was used, and it is advised to spray three times; the first 
when the blossoms begin to fall; the second, a week later; and the 
third ten days later than that. 



CHAPTER X\n 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH * 

The Beet-aphis f 

This species was first described })y Mr. A\'. R. Uoane in 1900 
and seems thus far to have lieen found onh' in \A'ashington and 
Oregon. " Attention was first called to this pest/' he says,! " in 
1896, when it was found that a field of two or three acres of beets 
was generally infesteil, a strip of twenty-five to a luuuh-ed yards 
being so badh' injured that the beets were nearh' all soft and 
spongy, and the plants much smaller than the average. 

" It has been even more desti'uctive in Oregon than in Wash- 
ington, at least a thousand tons of beets having been destroyed b}- 
it in one year in a single valley devoted largely to beet-culture. 
Like very many other beet-insects, this species infests also several 
wild or useless plants. 

" The smaller rootlets of the beet are first attacked by this 
aphis, and if it occurs in considerable numbers these arc soon all 
destroyed, and the leaves thereujx)!! soon wither, and the whole 
beet shrivels and becomes spongy. This wilting of the leaves will 
frequently, in fact, be the first thing to attract the attention of the 
beet-grower. The actual injury to the crop will, of course, depend 
largely upon the time when the attack of the aphis is made. If the 
plants are small they may be readih' destroyed, while if they are 
practically full grown the loss of the small rootlets will not 
materially affect them. 

* See Forbes and Hart, Bulletin 60, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., and F. H. Chitten- 
den, Bulletin 43, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr. 
t Pemphigus hetce Doane. Family Aphidce. 
X Bulletin No. 42, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

330 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 



331 



" No sexual generation of this aphis has as yet been discovered 
and no eggs have l^een seen, viviparous reproduction continuing 
throughout the year except when the cold of the winter tempora- 
rily suspends the physiological activities of the species. The 




Fig. 237. — The beet-aphis (Pemphigus beta Doane) : o, winged female; b, 
wingless female; c, antenna of winged female. (After Doane.) 

winged females, appearing from time to time during the summer 
and fall, serve to distribute the species generally, new colonies 
Ijeing started wherever these females find lodgment and food. In 
districts liable to injury by this insect it seems inadvisable that 
beets should l^e the first crop on new land, or that ground should 

be continued in beets or in any other 
root-crop after the pest has made its 
appearance in the field." 

y/F^'^j^ ^y Another plant-louse, called the beet 

f^ 11 Yi^^^^^-^^^C ]-oot-apliis *, proved injurious to sugar- 

beets in Colorado in 1903. They were 
found " quite generally distributed in 
the beet-fields in the vicinity of 
Rockyforcl and attacking the roots of 
many weeds." What seemed to be this 
species was very abundant upon the 
roots of the common garden purslane, 
to which it was very injurious. Near 
* Tychea breoicornis Hart. 




6 

Fig. 238. — Bet-t root-aphis 
{Tychea brevicornis Hart): 
a, aphis; 6, antenna; c, 
tarsus— all greatly enlarged. 
(After Garman). 



332 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Fort Collins a badly infested field of sugar-beets was also 
seriously damaged. 

No practical means for controlling these pests seems to have 
been recorded, so that in case of injury the entomologist of the 
State should be consulted. 

White Grubs, Wireworms, and Cutworms 

Fortunately for the sugar-beet farmer the worst insect ene- 
mies of that plant feed upon the tops, and very rarely do we hear 
of serious damage being done the roots. In the East most of the 
damage to the roots is done by those familiar old farm-thieves, the 
white grxih, the cutworm and the wireworm. As a general rule 
they wall be found to be worse on lands previously in sod, which 
should therefore be avoided when known to be badly infested with 
either of these insects, as both are difficult to fight after they have 
once commenced doing noticeable injury. 

The life histories and means of control for these pests will be 
found discussed on pages 79, 84, 85. 

The Sugar-beet Webworm * 

The sugar-beet webworm is very similar to the garden web- 
worm (page 406), and is so named because it has developed as a 
serious pest of the sugar-beet in Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado. 
It has been noted as injuring tansy in Michigan, and feeds on 
cabbage, onions, and alfalfa, as well as pigweed {Chenopodium 
album) and careless weed {A mnranthus) and will probably feed 
on many other crops. It is a native of western and central 
Europe, and northern Asia, and was evidently introduced on the 
Pacific Coast, as it was noted in Utah in 1869. 

The moth is larger than the garden webworm, having a wing 
expanse of an inch, and is a purpHsh-brown color with darker 
and paler bands as shown in Fig. 239. The -full-grown larva is 
about an inch long, of a dark color with a white stripe down the 

* Loxostege sticticalis Linn. P^amily Pyraustidae. See C. P. Gillette, 
Bulletin 98, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., and references there given. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 



333 



back and one along either side, and marked with numerous 
bUick and white tubercles as illustrated. 

Life History. — The larvse hibernate over winter an inch or 
two below the surface of the soil in long silken tubes. In spring 
they pupate in these tubes and the moths emerge about the middle 
of May. The eggs are laid on the foliage either singly or in clus- 




FiG. 239. — The svip;ar-beet vvebworm (Loxostege sticticalis Linn.): 1, moth; 2, 
eggs; 3, 4, larvse; fi, pupa; 6, winter tube of larva, opened at a to show 
pupa — 1, 3, 4, 5, enlarged. (After Gillette, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta.) 



ters of from three to ten, one overlapping another. The egg 
is broadly oval, one twenty-fifth inch long, and of a pale 
green color. The first generation of caterpillars feed on pig- 
weed and alfalfa in Colorado during June. A second generation 
of larvse occurs about the middle of July and sometimes injures 
beets, but the third genei'ation a]x)ut the middle of August is 



334 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

the one most injurious in Colorado. Most of these larvae hibernate 
over winter, but there is a partial fourth generation in Colorado- 
The larvse defoliate the plants, and cover them with a web the 
same as the native garden webworm, with which the life history 
seems to be practically identical. 

Control. — The same means of control as for the garden web- 
worm are advised. 



The Beet Army Worm * 

" This caterpillar, which replaces the fall army worm (L. 
frugiperda — see page 118) in the Westei'n States, differs from 




Fig. 240. — The beet uniiy woriii {Laphyyma exigua H.bn.j: a, moth; b, 
larva, side view; r, hirva , back view; (/, head of hirva; e, egg from above; 
/, egg from side — all enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

it by its more decidedly mottled ground-color, by a row of white 
dots at the lower margin of the lateral dark band, and by the 
yellower color of the light stripes. It is an interesting fact that 
while the preceding species was doing serious, unusual, and wide- 
extended injury in the Eastern and Southern States (1899), 
the present one was similarly abundant in Colorado, where, 
besides destroying many kinds of weeds and grasses, it com- 

* Luphyynui exigua Him. Family Nuctuido'. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 335 

pletely defoliated thousands of acres of sugar-beets. In some 
cases where the foliage of the beet did not furnish it sufficient 
food, the root was attacked and the upper surface was com- 
pletely gnawed away. Late plantings, of course, suffered most 
severely, especially when surrounded l^y newly broken ground. 
The weeds most generally eaten were pigweed, saltweed, wild 
sunflower, and Cleoine. Potato, pea, and apple leaves were 
also devoured. These injuries occurred about the middle of 
August, at which time the larvie and pupae were abundant, and 
a few moths laden Avith eggs were noticed." 

This species evident}' hibernates as a moth, and at least 
two broods of larvae may be looked for each year, the first about 
June and the second in August. The species has been reported 
thus far from Colorado and California, but it doubtless has a 
more extended range in the mountain regions of the far West. 

" Professor Gillette's field-experiments showed that it could be 
destroyed by dusting or spraying arsenical poisons on the leaves." 

Flea-beetles 

Several species of fiea-beetles. chiefly Systena tccninta, Systena 
hudsonias, Disonycha trianyidarif<, and Phyllotreta vittata, often 
do consideral)le injury by gnawing small holes in the upper and 
lower surfaces of the leaves, giving them an appearance as if 
affected by leaf-spot, or puncturing them full of small holes, and 
thus stunting the growth of the plant. 

The Spinach Flea-beetle * 

Of the many species of fiea-beetles injurious to sugar-beets, 
the spinach flea-beetle is one of the largest and most destructive. 
The beetle is nearly one-quarter inch long, shining black, with 
a greenish or bluish lustre. The prothorax and abdomen are 
red or I'eddish yellow, and the legs and antennae are pale yellowish. 
It occurs from New England to Montana and southward to the 

* Disonycha xanthomelcenn Dalm. Family Chrysomelidoe. See F. H. 
Chittenden, Bulletin 43, Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 14; S. A. Forbes, 
21st Rept. State Ent. of 111., p. 116. 



336 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



Gulf, and is one of the most common pe.sts of lieets and spinach, 
while its native food plants are chickweed and lambsquarters. 

Life History. — The beetles hibernate ov(n- winter and emerge 
in the spring during April and May. The buff or orange eggs are 
laid on end in small masses, "at the bases of the plants infe ted, 
on bits of leaf or earth, or even within the earth " according to 
Forbes. The eggs hatch from sometime in April to early July, 
according to localitv. The larvtu usuallv feed on the under side 




Fig. 241.— Tho spinach flea-beetle (Disonyclia xnnthomdiFna Dalm.): a, 
beetle; h, egg mass; hb, sculpture of egg; c, larva; d, pupa; e, voung larva; 
/, abdominal segment of same — a, c, d, five times natural size; h, more 
enlarged; 66,/, highly magnified. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

of the leaf, keeping together in families which migrate from leaf 
to leaf while young, and drop to the gi-ound — as do the beetles — 
when disturbed. While young tliey m(M-ely gnaw the under 
surface of the leaf, but later they eat through and riddle it with 
round holes, in which they are aided by the beetl(>s. The full- 
grown larva is about one-quarter inch long, of a dull gray 
color, except on red and purple l)eets, on which it assumes the 
color of the plant attacked, is of a cylindiicul foiin. and the seg- 
ments are strongly mark(Ml by rows of I'aiscd (ubercles. each of 
which bears a black hair at the tip. Th(> larvie become grown 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 337 

in lalo June and early July in Illinois, and enter the earth to 
pupate, the Ix'etles of the next generation emerging about a 
month after the eggs were deposited. The beetles of the second 
generation lay their eggs from July to September and the beetles 
mature before winter sets in. In the District of Columbia, 
Chittenden oljserves that tlie fii'st generation is more abun- 
dant on chickweed and tiie second is injurious to beets and 
spinach. 

Control. — Thoroughly dusting or spraying the plants with 
Paris green or preferably arsenate of lead will reatlily destroy 
the larva? and probably most of the beetles. As in combating 
all flea-beetles the destruction of the weeds upon which they 
multiply is important. 

The Larger Beet Leaf-beetle * 

One of the principal pests of the sugar-beet in Colorado and 
adjacent States is a rather large brownish leaf-beetle which with 
its larva) destroy the foliage or so injure it that the plant dies. 
It is often locally known as the " alkali bug " from the fact the 
injury is mostly on alkali soil or land near it, and " french bug,'' 
probably from the " frenching " of the foliage. The beetle is 
from one-(iuarter to one-third inch long, and rather resembles 
the elm leaf-beetle, varying from pale yellow to black, with the 
wing-covers striped as shown in Fig. 242. Several wild plants, 
including blites, Russian thistle, and saltbush f prol)ably furnish 
the normal food of the insect. 

" The beetles are gregarious, ' sometimes occurring in swarms 
like blister-beetles.' Their l^rownish-gray eggs are deposited 
in irregular masses, usiuilly on the under sides of the leaves. 
They hatch in about six days, and their larvie or young commence 
feeding at once, continuing for nine or ten days, when they dig 
their way into the ground, a few days later coming forth as beetles. 
Although the beetles do much injury, the principal damage is 
sometimes accomplished by the larvse, hundreds being found 

* Monoxia puncticollis Say. Family Chrysomelidoe. 
f Dondid americann and D. deprensa, S(dst>l(i tnu/its, and Atriplex argentea. 



338 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

on a single plant, which is either consumed or so injured that it 
shrivels and dies. The lai'va, shown in the illustration, measures 
when full grown about one-third of an inch in length. The 
general color is nearly uniform tlark olive brown, the conspicuous 
piliferous tubercles being pale yellow, and the head and portions 
of the legs black. The eggs are dull brownish gray, and the 
surface, as seen through a lens, is covered with septagonal and 
hexagonal areas." * 




Fig. 242. — The larger beet leaf-beetle {Monoxia puncticoUis Say): a, female 
beetle; h, eggs; c, d, larvse from above and side; d^, claw of male; 9, 
claw of female — all much enlarged. (After Chittenden, U, S. Dept. Agr.) 



Control. — Paris green diluted with flour and dusted over the 
foliage has effectively fonti'olled the pest, and pi'ol)ably any 
thorough application of any arsenical either wet or dry would 
be effective. Professor C. P. Gillettef has observed that the beetles 
accumulate on the '' mother " beets early in the spring, so that 
if a few beets were left in the ground over winter they might 
serve as trap plants for the piotection of the younger plants in 

♦Quoted from F. H. Chittenden. Hulk-tin 4:i, Bureau Ent., U. S. Depf 
Agr., p. 10. 

tC. P. Gillette, 24th Report Colo. Agr. Kxp. Sta. (1902). pp. lOSlll. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 



339 



spring. As injury is mosth^ on or near alkali ground, such soil 
should be avoided. 

Plant-bugs 

The Tarnished Plant-bug {Lygus pratensis — see page lOl), 
False Chinch-bug (A\v.s/h.s (iiigustatus), and several of the com- 
mon plant-bugs often become so numerous as to do considerable 
damage to beets. When present in large numbers, a spray of 
kerosene emulsion might l)e used to advantage. Experiments 
in New York show that the tai'nished plant-bug can be driven 
from a field by dusting the rows with wood-ashes, being careful 




Fig. 243- — The false cliinch-l)\is (.Vy/.s-n/s angustatus). (After Riley.) 

to work on the same side of each row and thus gi-adually driving 
them into the field adjoining. 



The Beet Leafhopper * 

Very serious loss to the sugai'-beet industry has occurred in 
Colorado and Utah from a condition known as '' curly leaf " 
or "blight." Investigations made by Professor E. D. Ball have 
shown that the "curly leaf " is undoul)tedly caused l)y the presence 
of immense numbers of small leafhoppers, from 10 to 100 often 
being found on a plant in ])adly infested fields. The curly leaf 
condition does not seem to result, however, except when tiie soil 
has become dry and heated, and where plants are shade<l or 

* Eutettlx tenella Baker. See E. D. Ball, Bulletin 66, Part IV, Bureau 
<>r Entotiiology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



340 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

irrigated the damage by the leafhoppers does not seem to produce 
tlie same tioiiMc Siiuihir injury has been noted in parts of 
Oregon, bui not of so serious a nature. 

The l»cel-leai'liopper is a pale yellowish-green species (Fig. 
244), one-eighth to three-sixteenths an inch long, and when 







Fig. 244. — The siigarbeet leafhopper {Euietti.c (ciicUa Baker): a, adult; b, 
nymph; /, eggs — greatly enlarged; g, sec' ion of beet stem showing fresh 
egg.s in place; h, same showing eggs ready to hatch; i, old egg scars on 
beet stems; j, small leaf of sugar beet showing characteristic " curly- 
leaf " condition; k, enlarged section of back of an extreme ca.se of curly- 
leaf showing warty condition of veins. (After Ball, U. S. De))t. Agr.) 

(Is'in,:: appeal's ahnost while, so that il is sonietiincs loca!l>' calit-d 
tile " while lly." 

Life Hislorn. — The hi])ernating haljits of the adults and their 
food-plants in the spring have not l)een well determincHl. They 
appear in the beet-fields late in June and lay their eggs in the 
leaf-stem.'^, tiie eggs hatching in about two weeks. The young 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 341 

nymphs appear in July and are very active, being first found in the 
unfolding leaves at the centre and later spreading to all parts 
of the plant. Th(> nymphs are \-ariously colored, hut the com- 
monest form is a pale cream\' color with a brown saddle on the 
middle of the abdomen and various mottlings on the prothorax 
and wingpads. The nymphs become full grown in from sixteen 




Fig. 245. — '' Hopperette " ilet^ignetl for collecting leafhopper.s. (After G. C. 
Davis, Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta.) 

to twenty-two days and the adults again become' alnuidant 
in August and September; they evidently liibernate as adults, 
as no more eggs are laid in the fall as far as observed. 

The characteristics of the " ciniy leaf " are described l)y Dr. 
Ball as follows: " The first S3'mptom of ' curly-leaf ' or ' blight ' 
of the beet is a thickening of all the smaller veinlets of the leaf. 



342 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

giving it a roughened appearance on the under side. This is 
followed l)y a curling of the edge and a final loUing up of the leaf, 
the upper sui-facc always being rolled in. As this progresses the 
smaller veink^ts grow still larger and more irregular, knotlikc 
swellings appear at fi'e(iu(>nt intervals, and in extreme cases 
little nipple-lik(> swellings api)ear, extending to a height of nearly 
one-fourth of an inch. This will be noticed first on a medium- 
sized leaf, gradually spreading to the younger ones, while at the 
same time the beet almost stops growing and a large number of 
fibrous roots are sent out. . . . The beet often continues in this 
way throughout the season; in bad cases it shrivels and dies, 
while in a few instances ther(^ is a partial recovery and a new set 
of leaves, though the sugar content remains very low." 

Control. — Practical measures of control do not seem to have 
been very thoroughly tested. With a ])etter knowledge of the 
hibernating habits of the species, it may ))e ])ossible to reduce its 
numbers at that time. After the hoppers have appeared in 
numbers they must be dealt with promptly. " .\ thorough 
spraying with kerosene emulsion at a strength of 1 part of the 
stock solution to 5 parts of water, would destro}^ most of the 
insects that it hit, and by using a drag in front of the nozzles to 
turn the leaves over and cause the insects to jump, most of them 
would be reached." This would probal^ly need to be repeated 
in about ten days. Hopperdozers have often been successfully 
used for collecting various forms of leafhoppers. A modifica- 
tion of the form used against grasshoppers (see page 108), with 
a couple of wings extending out on either side of the row and 
covered with a sticky substance such as " tanglefoot " or that 
described on page 523, would undou))tedly jjrove effective in 
collecting the adults, particuhuly before the fenuiles have laid 
their eggs, when they are moi-e i-eadih- caught. A " hopperette " 
designed by Professor CJ. C. Davis for use against leafhoppers on 
celery in Michigan, is shown in Fig. 245, and may be readily 
attached to the frame of a wheel hoe. The string across the 
notch at A strikes the plants and causes the hoppers to jump 
at the right time. By adding high wide wings to either side oi 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH 



343 



this machine it shoukl l)e woU adapted for beets and simihir 
crops. 

Blister-beetles * 

Among those insects attacking the young sugar-beets and 
often doing considerable damage after they have become^ partly 
grown, few are more widespread or do more general injur}- than 
the blister-beetles. They have been especially destructive 
in the northern Mississippi Valley, where they are usually worst 
after a period of unusual abundance of grasshoppers. Coming 
suddenly in a large swarm, they settle in a field and thoroughly 





Fic. 246. — The striped blister-beetle (Epicauta vittata): a, female beetle; 
h, eggs; c, triungulin larva; d, second or caraboid stage; e, same as/ 
doubled up as in pod ; /, searabteoid stage ; g, coarctate larva — all except 
e enlarged. (After Riley and Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

riddle the foliage with holes or strip it bare before going to another 
field. 

One of the most common forms is the striped blister-beetle, 
or ''old-fashioned potato-bug" (Epicauta vittata), which is 
shown in the illustration, together with the immature stages. 
The ash-gray blister-beetle (Macrobasis xmicolor) is also a common 
form, shown in Fig. 230. Three or four other forms are common 
throughout the country, but are especially numerous in the West, 
where grasshoppers are more abundant. The reason for this is 
apparent when we come to consider the life history of the pest, 
for the blister-beetles are not an unmixed evil. 



* Familv Meloidae. 



344 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



Life History. — In a small cavity in the earth the female beetle 
lays some four or five hundred eggs, these being deposited from 
July to Octol)er. About ten days later the eggs hatch, and 
fi'om them emerge some small but very active lai'vte, with long 
legs, large heads, and strong jaws. 

They at once commence^ running about in search of the pod- 
like masses of grasshoppei's' eggs, and as soon as ()n(> is found the 
larva enters it and connnences a hearty meal. As soon as his 
app(^tite has Ix'cn somewhat satisfied he sheds his skin, and now 

being surrounded by food and no lon- 
ger needing his long I'lnming legs, they 
are changed for v(M'y short, aborted 
legs, and the larva is soft and sluggish. 
In another week a second molt takes 
place, after which the legs and even 
the mouth-parts are still more atro- 
phied. After another molt and after 
consuming all the eggs in the pod, the 
larva now goes deeper in the soil, and 
inside a small oval cavity again sheds 
its skin, and ln"bernales over winter as 
a soi't of semipupa. In the spring the 
lanica). (After Chitten- larva appears again nuich like the 
den, U. S. Dept. Ap-.) ^^^^.^^^^^ ^^^^^ ,^^1, ^j^,^,^ not eat much, 

and soon goes into the i)upal stage, from which emerges the adult 
l)eetle. Altogether the life history is one of tiie most peculiar and 
compHcated among insects. Thus the blister-beetles are one of the 
most important factoi's in holding the grasshoppers in check. 

Remedies. — However, when they swarm into the beet-fields, 
potato- or gaiTlen-patches, one cannot afford to allow them to 
consume one crop for the good they nuiy do in saving another 
from still anotlu^- insect scourge. " A bii'd in the hand is worth 
two in the bush," is equally true of insects. 80 l>e leady for them 
on their first appearance; give the jjlants a thorough spraying 
with of 1 pound of Paris green, and 1 jjound of lime to 125 gallons 
of water. It may be well to spray with liordeaux mixture, 




Fig. 247.-- 'I'lie black blister 
beetle (Epicauta pennsyl- 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO BEETS AND SPINACH ol5 

which will prevent various fungous diseases, and with which 
Paris green can be used much stronger without danger of burn- 
ing the foliage; or it may l)e ajjplied dry 1)y mixing with from 
ten to twenty parts of flour or plaster, dusting it on in early 
morning, while the dew is still on the plants. Arsenate of 
lead sprayed at the rate of 3 jjounds to 50 gallons, or used as 
a dust, will be eciually effective, will adhere to the foHage better, 
and will be less likely to burn the foliage. 

The Beet or Spinach Leaf -miner. * 

Frequently beet and spinach leaves will be found with tor- 
tuous mines or large blotches which have been mined out by 
small white maggots beneath the surface epidermis. This injury 
is most commonly due to the maggot of a small fly shown in 
Fig. 248. "The ground color is gray with the front of the head 
silver white. The body, including the legs, is somewhat sparsely 
covered with rather long stiff black hairs. When in action the 
body is usually carried in a somewhat curved position, but when 
extended measures nearly a quarter of an inch. The maggot 
(/) is white, and so nearly transparent that the contents of the 
abdomen can be seen through the posterior portion." 

Life History. — " The flies, by close observation, may be seen 
in flight just above the ground or hovering about their different 
food plants. The eggs are placed on the lower surface of the 
leaves and arranged in masses of from two to five. When the 
young hatch they bury themselves within the leaf tissue, con- 
structing a thread-like mine which they afterwards extend in a 
curve or semicircle. Transformation to pupae takes place in 
most cases in loose soil, which the maggots enter to only a short 
distance, or under fallen leaves. Occasionally maggots trans- 
form within a leaf if the latter happens to rest on the ground. 
Dr. Howard states that the eggs hatch in from three to four 
days, and the larval stage is passed in seven or eight days, the 
puparium or resting stage requiring from ten to twenty days. 

* Pegomyla vicina Lintn. See Chittenden, I.e., from which the quota- 
tions are taken. 



346 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



" Injury appears to be mo^^t frequent in late fall, but 
may be due to earlier generations in midsummer. " In many 
cases infestation can be traced directly to the insect having 
bred in lambsquarters and similar weeds, which if not destroyed 
by ordinary methods of cultivation mature and die during 
October." 

Cofitrol. — Where this pest occurs in small gardens it may be 
controlled by picking and destroying the infested leaves, and 




Fig. 248.— The beet leaf-miner (I'<(jo»i!/i<i ricina Lintn.): a, fly; b, head of; 
male fly; r, head of female; d, surface of egg highly magnified; e, egg 
/, maggoi; g, head of same; .;, anal segment; k, anal spiracles — all 
enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

even in larger fields such a practice might prevent its mcrease 
and consequent injury. Those insecticides which have been 
tried as remedies seem to have had no effect. Deep plowing 
and thorough harrowing of infested fields as soon as^ the crop can 
be removed should greatly lessen injury the next year. As this 
species seems to prefer spinach to beet, Dr. Chittenden has 
suggested that spinach might be used as a trap crop in large 
fields of sugar beets where the injury warranted such a measure. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS * 

The Cabbage Maggot f 

Throughout the Middle and Northern States the cabbage mag- 
got is one of the most destructive and most difficult to combat of 
all the insects affecting cabbage, cauliflower and radishes. Just 
as the plants are commencing to make a good growth they sud- 
denly appear sick, many are found wilting, and soon die. Exami- 
nation of the roots shows that they have been riddled by small, 
white maggots as shown in Fig. 254. Early-planted cabbage, 
cauliflower and radishes are particularly affected, and later in the 
season the maggots will be found on turnips and wild mustard. 

These maggots are the larvse of a small fly, resembling the 
house-fly, but distinctly smaller, being only three-sixteenths 
inch long, with a narrower body and proportionately larger wings. 
It is a grayish color with three dark stripes on the thorax and one 
along the middle of the abdomen, and the body bears numerous 
stiff hairs or bristles. The flies appear just as early cabbage is set 
out, in late April and early May in New Jerse}', and in late Mav in 
southern Minnesota. They do not fly far and seem to avoid fields 
which are swept liy the wind. 

Life History. — The females deposit their eggs on the stem (jf 
the plant or in the soil near the stem, at or just beneath the surface 

* See Garman, "Insects Injurious to Cabbage," Bulletin 114, Ky. Agr. 
Exp. Sta. 

■\ Pegomijia braxsicoe Bouche. Family .4 ^(//(ow/zn'/Q?. See Slingerland, 
Bulletin 78, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; J. B. Smith, Bulletin 200, N. J. 
Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. H. Chittenden, Circular 63, Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. 
Agr.; F. L. Washburn, 11th and 12th Reports State Ent. of Minn.; W. J. 
Schoene, Bulletins 301 and 334, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Journal of Economic 
luitomology, Vol. IV, p. 210. 

347 



348 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

of the soil, eufh female laying some fifty eggs. The eggs are most 
abundant in late May and early June in central New York. Usu- 
ally a female lays but one or two eggs on a plant and prefers to lay 
them in a crevice of the; stem or very near it, for if the young mag- 
gots have to t ravel far to reach their food, many will die before find- 
ing it, and if laid on hard soil the maggots will be unal)le to pene- 
trate it to the soft tissue of the root, as th(>y are unable to feed on 




Fit;. ■J4VI. -Cabbage root inl"o.st(>(l witli maggots. (Ai'lcr Slingcilaiid.) 



the hai'd stem above ground. The eggs are al)out one twenty- 
fifth inch long, of a pure white color, which renders them 
easily seen against the soil by one familiar with them, and are of the 
shape shown in Fig. 251, having a curious ridge along one side. The 
eggs hatch in from three to ten days, averaging five to seven. 
The little maggots at once commence rasping the surface of the 
tender roots, gradually mine into them, and in three or four weeks 
have become full grown. The gi-own maggot is one-third inch 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 349 

long, white or yellowish in coloi', taperiii*-; toward the head and 
obliquely truncate at the tip of the abdomen. From the head a 
pair of strong, black, hook-like, rasping jaws project downward, 
and just back of the head on either side is a minute, light brown, 
fan-like projection (Fig. 253, 6), or spiracle, which leads into the 
breathing system. The obliiiiic [jostc^'ior end is surrounded by 




Fig. 250. — The cabbage maggot fly {Peyoitiyia hrassiae Bouche), female 
greatly enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 

twelve rounded tubercles and in the centre are two brownish spira- 
cles (Fig. 253, fl) . When done feeding the larva burrows one-half 
to one inch under the surface of the soil, and the outerskin gradually 
hardens until it forms a firm brown shell, called a puparium, 
within which the larva transforms to a true pupa. Frequently the 
puparia are found in the galleries made by the maggot or in crevices 
of the roots. During the summer this stage lasts about two weeks, 
but in the fall most of the insects remain in this cohdition over win- 



350 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




tcr. Tims the whole life cycle from egg to adult requires al)out six 
to ten or twelve weeks, according to the temperature and moisture, 
and the second generation of flies appear in June in New Jersey or 
by mid-July in southern Minnesota. The maggots of the second 
generation seem to do but little damage. The Hfe history of the 
insect during late summer has not been satisfac- 
torily determined, but there is undoubtedly a third 
generation and in the South, possibly a fourth, the 
work of the last generation being sometimes 
noticed in late cabljage in early fall. On Long 
Island, N. Y., the larvie have been ol)served as 
abundant upon cab])age stumps in September and 
October, working al)<)ve ground, and the adults 
and eggs have l)(>en common around the ad- 
ventitious buds. Hough estimates indi('at(> 300 
to 1500 maggots pov acre on these stumps. The 
puparia of the last, and in the Xortli possibly 
some of those of the second generation, remain 
in the soil over winter, though there is some evi- 
dencethat the flies may also hibernate in the 
Middle States. 

Control. — The most effectiv(> measures of conti'ol consist in cul- 
tural methods and preventives. l)ut little pi-actical success having 
attended the use of remedies to kill the maggots. 

Cultural Methods. — Inasmuch as the puparia remain in the soil 
or in the old roots or stumps over winter, it is important for this as 
well as other cal)bage pests to gather and destroy all the refuse of the 
crop as soon as possibl(> and then i)l()w infested land thoroughly in 
the fall. Mr. Sciioene has shown that 1)>' plowing l)adly infesteil 
.seed-beds six or .seven inches deep that only one-fourth as many flies 
emerged as whei-e the soil was undistiii'lH^d. A rotation of the crop 
will be of value where cabbages are not grown on large acreages. 
Cabbage and otluM' cruciferous crops should not be planted after 
each othei", as all are affected by the same pests. It is evident that 
if the crop is planted at some distance from that of liie j)revious 
year, and as the flies arc known to a\'(»id wind-swept fields, 



Fig. 2ol.~K{i;s 
of cabbage 
maggot, 
greatly en- 
larged: hair 
lineat center 
of b shows 
natural size; 
b, outline of 
side view. — 
(After Sling- 
erland). 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 351 

that many of them will not succeed in finding the new plant- 
ing. 

As the maggots infest wild mustard and various similar weeds, 
they should be destroyed as far as possible and crops affected by 
the maggots should not be planted on or near land badly infested 
with such weeds if avoidable. Wild mustard may be readil}' killed 
by spraying it while }T)ung with iron sulfate, 2 pounds to 1 
gallon of water. 

Late-planted cabbage is 
Init slightly affected as com- 
pared with that planted earlier. 
The earliest radishes are often 
quite free from the pest, those 
planted later and maturing 
just as the flies are abunrlant 
are l^adly injured, and the later 
plantings are free from injury. 
It is evident, therefore, that 
where planting of the main 
crop can be delaj'etl until after 
most of the flies have ovi- 
posited, that it will escape 

serious iniurv. Furthermore, t- orr. t. ^ , , 

•^ l^iG. 252. — Eggs of cabbage maggot at 

either cabbage or radishes base of stalfc . (Photo by Headlee.) 

may be used as a trap crop, • 

by planting a few rows early and as soon as the flies had laid 

their eggson them, plowing them under deeph- and then setting 

the main crop. All of these methods involve a familiarity 

with the fly and its eggs which any observant grower may 

soon acquire. 

High fertilization with a quickly available fertilizer will enable 
the plants to make a rapid growth and will be profitable even if 
maggots do not occur. 

Thoiough and fre([uent cultivation while the eggs are being 
laid destroys many of them. Indeed, one of the best means 
of control, which is extensively practiced by many growers, is to 







352 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




Fig. 253. — Cabbage maggot, .side 
view, enlarged, hair line repre- 
sents natural s'ze; a, view of 
caudal segment; b, outline of 
.spiracle back of head — greatly 
enlarged. (After SHngerland.) 



as the whole must l)e H\--tiiiht 



hill up the earth around the young plants when set, and as soon as 
eggs are laid, pull the soil containing the eggs away from the plant 
into the middle of th(> row, where they or the maggots hatching 
from them will he killed by the heat. This involves considerable 

hand work, but where carefully 
and intelligently followed is one 
of the surest means of control. 

Preventives. — Where late cab- 
Ijage is grown the plants often 
l)ecome infested in the seed- 
l)ed. To avoid this the seed- 
l)eds should be covered with 
cheesecloth. The sides of the 
frame are made of 12-inch boards, 
across which wires are stretched 
to prevent sagging of the cloth, 
The cover should be removed 
a week or ten days before transplanting, so that the plants may 
harden. If eggs ar(> observed in the seed-bed during this time, 
transplant at once. 

The most successful preventive yet used consists of a tarred 
felt card placed around each plant so as to form a collar, lying 
upon the surface of the soil and thus preventing the fly from 
depositing her eggs. These cards Avere originally devised by 
Professor W. H. Goff, of Wisconsin, and have been extensively 
used by large growers in that State? for man}' yeai's, as well as 
in New York, and recent 'experiments in Xew Jersey and 
Minnesota have proven them very satisfactory. The cards 
should be made of one-ply tarred felt, as ordinary tarred paper 
or building paper curls up and is not as effective. The cards 
are made in a hexagonal shape, with a slit extending from one 
corner to the centre, which is .slit with a star-shaped cut to 
accommodate the stem. The cards are cut with a tool shown 
in Fig. 255, which may be macU^ by any blacksmith, and are 
cut out in i-ows as illustrated, one cut of the tool making 
a card. The cards should be placed around the plants when 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 353 

they are set. The earth shoukl be smoothed down and well 
firmed by the hand, the card then applied to the plant, and 
pressed down tight to the ground, so that it fits snugly around 
the stem and the edges of the slit meet. With a little experience 
the cards maybe applied rapidl}', and though involving con- 
siderable handwork, the testimony of those who have used 
them for many years shows that the method is entirely pi-acticul 
and is to be preferred to doubtful remedies. 




Fig. 254. — Cabbage roots destroyed by tlie cabbage mascot. (After 
Slinfrerlaiid.) 

A mixture of lime and cai'bolic acitl has recently been 
used by applying it to the surfac(^ of the soil around the 
plants, so as to form a slight ci-ust, the carbolic acid acting pos- 
sibly as a repellant. The lime is slaked to a thin cream, and 
diluted to 3 pints to a gallon of water, to which is added a 
tablespoonful of crude carljolic acid. It is applied liberally to 
the soil immediately ai'oimd the plants with a sprinkling can. 
This has proven finite effective for cabloage in New Jersey, 
luit in Minnesota cabbage so treated showed but little benefit, 
though radishes were somewhat protected. Kerosene and sand, 
gas tar and sand, tobacco dust and many other substances 



354 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



X 




have been used to place around the plant and act as repel- 
lants or preventives, but all have some objection or have not 
been sufficiently tested to show their effectiveness and practica- 
bility. Dr. J. B. Smith reports, however, that cauliflower-gi'owers 
at liichfield, \. J., have been usino- oas tai', 1 part to 2o parts of 
sand, for several years with jiood results. The gas tar costs $1.2.") 
a gallon and will treat 1000 plants. A greater j^roportion of gas 
tar has proven injurious. 

Remedies. — For the destruction of the maggots, both carbolic 

acid emulsion and hellebore 
decoction have been exten- 
sively used with \'aiyiiig re- 
sults, but fi-om the e\'idence 
so far submitted, tlu^ gi'ower 
would hardly seem war- 
I'niited in ])laciiig much de- 
pendence upon tliein, though 
where pre\'(mtive measures 
have l)een neglected, they 
nuiy aid in reducing the 
numbei' of maggots and pre- 
vent a total loss. To make 
Vw,. 2.5'). — ii, tarred i'clt card in outline . i- i , 

one-third size; />, tool for cutting ^lie emulsion, dis.solve 1 
cai-ds, about one-sixth .size; c, show- pound of soap in a gallon of 

iuK how tool is used, dotted line , •,• , ^ iV • i i i 

. ,. ,- -,• „ <• '^ ,„ ^f 4^ 1 boilmg water; to this add 1 

HKiicatinfi; ])osition oi edge oi tool. » ' 

(After (lofT.) pint of crude carbolic acid 

and churn thoroughly until 
a good creaniy enuilsion is made. I'or us(\ dilute^ one part of 
the emulsion with 30 ]iarts of water and a))i)l\' i to ounces 
to each ])lant. It may l)e conveniently a])plietl with a watering 
pot. The earth should be pulled away from the plants .so that 
the emulsion may be brought into actual contact with the 
larva' on the roots. Application should l)e commenced as soon 
as maggots are observed, repeated in 4 or .") days, and then 
once a week for a month. Well-grown maggots are quite resistant 
to the emulsion, but it will destroy the young as they hatch l)efore 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 355 

they l)o<'ome established in the root. Hellebore decoction is made 
by steeping 2 ounces of powdered hellebore in a quart of boiling- 
water for half an hour, and then diluting to make a gallon of liquid. 
It may be kept in the concentrated foi'm, liut should be thoroughly 
stirred before using. It is applied in the same manner as the car- 
bolic emulsion, l-ioth the.se mixtures may also l)e used against 
maggots on i-adishes and oiiious by making thoi'ough applications 
along the rows. 

The surest method of destroying the maggots on the I'oots is by 
the use of carl)on l)isulfi(h' (.see page .")7). This is entirely practi- 
cable on a few plants, but has not come into general use on a large 
scale, as no satisfactoi'v tool for its injection into the soil is avail- 
able. A small hole should be made with a dil)ble 4 to 6 inches from 
the infested stem, and a teaspoonful of carbon bisulfide injected and 
the hole tightly closed with earth. If made too close to the plant 
the roots will be injured. Tlie fumes kill the maggots by permeat- 
ing the soil. \Miere plants are badly infested injection on two 
sides may be necessary. The material will cost about 11.00 per 
1000 plants. Professor Slingeiland desci'ibes an injector, no 
longer made, but similar tools are for sale l)y dealers in agricul- 
tural implements in France, and miglit l)e made l\v any machinist. 

The Imported Cabbage Worm * 

Probably the worst pest of the cabbage and one of the best- 
known garden insects is the common cabbage woi-m, whose parent 
is the common white butterfly. It is an old European pest and 
was imported neai" (jjuebec, Canada, about 1S60, whence it spread 
to New England, reached Xew York in ISGS, Cleveland, Ohio, by 
1S7'), and the Gulf States l)y ISSO, and has since spread to all parts 
of the country. 

The l)utterflies are among the fii'st to emerge in early spring. 
They are white, marked with l>lack near the tip of the fore-wings, 
which expand nearly 2 inches. The female l;ears two black spots 

* Pontiu rapae Linn. Family Pieridw. See F. H. Chittenden, Circular 60, 
Bureau of Ent( molugy, U. S. Depl. \^r. 



356 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

on each fore-wing, while the male has only one, and both sexes have 
a black spot on the anterior margin of the hind-wings. 




Fig. 256. — The cabbage butterfly 'Pontii ra-pcp Linn.) : - larva; b, chrysalis 
c, male butterfly; d, female butterfly. (After C. M. Weed.) 

Life History. — The butterflies soon commence to lay their eggs 
on whatever food-plant is available. The larva? feed on all of the 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 357 

common cultivated crucifers as well as many wild sorts, so that the 
species is never without food. The small yellowish, oval eggs are 
laid on end on the foliage, and are marked with prominent longi- 
tudinal ridges. They hatch in from four to eight days. The larva? 
grow very rapidly, gorging themselves on the foliage, which they 
skeletonize in their well-known manner, and become full grown in 
from ten days to two weeks. The mature cabbage worm is about 
l{ inches long, of a velvety green color, very similar to the foliage, 
with a faint yellow stripe down the middle of the back and a row 
of yellow spots one each side. The surface, when seen under a 
lens, is fineh^ roughened and dotted with small black specks. The 




Fig. 257. — Pteromalus puparuni, a chalcis-fly which parasitizes the cabbage 
worm and many other injurious insects, male and femalegreatly enlarged — 
hair hne shows natural size. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

chrysalis is attached to the foliage by a strand of silk around the 
thorax and is first greenish and later light brown in color. The 
butterflies emerge in from one to two weeks in the summer, but 
the chrysalides of the last generation in fall hibernate over winter 
among the old stalks and rubbish on the fields. Thus the whole 
life cycle in summer requires from three to five weeks. In Xew 
iMigland there are three generations a season and there are prolj- 
al)ly five or six in the extreme south, as the Initterflies there remain 
on the wing all winter. 

Enemies. — Fortunately, the parasites of the cabbage worm are 
becoming very effective in checking its multiplication, and in 
many sections of New England where it has existed the longest, 
it rarely becomes very injurious, so well do the parasites control 



358 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

it. Most of these are importations from Europe, one of the 
most important being a small wasp-like Braconid fly {Apanleles 
ijlomeratus Linn.) which was purposely imported from England 
in 188.3. During the autumn of 1904 Dr. Chittenden states that 
it killed practically every worm at A\'ashington, D. C. The nuiggots 
of these little parasites live within the worms and when full grown 
come forth and spin masses of small white cocoons on the foliage, 
often attached to the dead or dying woi-m (Fig. 167). Another 
very impoitant parasite is a minute Chalcis-Hy {Pteromalus 




Fig. 258. — Apanleles glomeratus, a parasite of the cabbage worm: a, adult 
fly; b, cocoon; c, flies escaping from cocoons — natural size, a, b, highly 
magnified. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

pupm-uni Linn.), about one-sixteenth of an inch long, which was 
probably imported with its host. These often emerge in immense 
numbers, hundreds of them often being secured from a single 
worm. Wasps frequently prey on the caterpillars, using them for 
provisioning their nests. Various predaceous bugs also attack 
the worms as well as numerous other internal j)arasites. 

Control. — As the chrysalids pass the wint(>r on the old stumps, 
foliage, and rubbish on the field, it is evident that tiiey should be 
destroyed and the field {)lowed as soon after the crop is removed 
as possible. A few stalks may well be left standing here and 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 359 

there and be k(^pt well poisoiietl, so as to aet as traps to destroy 
worms from eggs laid l)y late females. 

The most effective means of control is sprajang or dusting 
with Paris gj-een or arscMiate of lead. The former is used J pound 
to the barrel and the latter 2 to 8 poimds per l)an-el of water. 
As the foliage of cabbage is extremely smooth it will be advisable 
to add 2 or 3 pounds of resin soap or " sticker " to render the 
material more adhesive (see page 46). The arsenicals should 
be applied as soon as the plants are set, and they should be kept 
well covered until the heads are half formed. If this is done, 
the young larvic will ho destroyed before they burrow into the 
heads, and there will be but little damage after the spra3'ing is 
stopped. Although there is some prejudice against poisoning 
cabbage, it is entirely unfounded, for it has been shown that a 
person would need to eat twenty-eight cabbages at once, if dusted 
in the ordinary manner, to secure poisonous effects. It is obvious 
that plants should not have large quantities of dust placed on 
them after they commence to head, and such applications are 
entirely unnecessary. 

Various contact insecticich^s may be used against the worms 
on a few plants, but are not practicable for large acreages. Thus 
water heated to 150° F., will kill all the worms which it hits. 
Kerosene emulsion will kill the larvae, but must hit them, and 
may leave an odor on the plant. Pyrethrum or buhach has been 
used effectively, applying it either dry or diluted with flour, 
or sprayed as a decoction at the rate of 1 ounce to a gallon of 
water. Dilute tobacco extract has also proven effective, but 
all of these substances have the disadvantage that they 
must be l)rought into actual contact with the worms to kill 
them. 



360 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Southern Cabbage Butterfly * 

Before the invasion of the imported cabbage worm this species 
was the cause of considerable injury from the Middle States 
southward, but it has now been largely replaced and overshadowed 
in importance by the imported species. The male Initterfiy is 
very similar in marking to the female of P. rapce, and would not 




Fig. 259. — The southern cabbage butterfly; a, male; b, female. (After Riley.) 

be distinguished on the wing. The female is more heavily 
marked with black, as shown in Fig. 259. The caterpillar is a 
greenish-blue color with four longitudinal, yellow stripes, and 




Fig. 260. — The southern cabbage butterfly : a, larva; 6, pupa. (After Riley.) 



covered with black dots. The habits are very similar to those 
of the imported cabbage worm, and the same methods of control 
should be used. 

* Pontia protodice Boisd. Family Pieridoe. 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 361 



The Potherb Butterfly * 

This species is more common in the North and East and is 

distinguished from its near rela- 
tives by the wings being uniform 
white without spots. The larvte 
are very similar to those of the 
imported species and the habits 
ui-c very similar. Like the south- 
ern species, though formerly very 
common and often injurious, 
this species is now rarely com- 
mon enough to do much injury 
and feeds mostly on wild plants. 




Fig. 261.— The potherb butterfly 
and caterpillar. (After Harris.) 



The same remedies as for the imported species should be used. 

The Cabbage Looper f 

Next to the imported cabl)age worm the looper is probably 
the most serious pest of cabbage,^!^iid closfly resembles it in the 
way it strips thefdliage. Tjie hanie"'' lo|(l'>er '' is derived from 
its " looping " habit of walking like a measuring worm, due to the 
absence of legs on the third and fourth abdominal segments. 
The larvae are pale to dark green in color, marked with several 
longitudinal white lines, as shown in Fig. 262, which become 
obscure as they become full grown, so that they might be easily 
mistaken for the common cabbage worms were it not for the loop- 
ing gait. The species occurs throughout the territory east of the 
Rockies, but is much more commonly injurious in the Middle and 
Southern States. Although cabbage and cauliflower are the 
favorite food plants, it attacks all of the cruciferous crops, is 
frequently injurious to lettuce, peas, celery and beets, and has 
been found upon c[uitc a list of cultivated crops and various weeds. 

* Pontia napi Linn. Family Pieridce. 

t Autographa brassicoe Riley. Family Noctuidce. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Bulletin 33, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; F. A. Sirrine, Bulletin 144. 
N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



362 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Life History. — The life history has not been carefull>- observed, 
but it seems probable that the winter is passed in the pupa stage 
in the old leaves, stumps and rubbish of the cabbage field. Sirrine 
states that the life history is similar to that of the imported 
cabbage worm, and it seems probable that there are three genera- 
tions a year in the Middle States, and possil)h' more further 
South. Injury to cabbage seems to be worse in late summer. 
When full grown the larva spins a very thin, transparent, white 




Fiu. 2ti2. — ^Th(^ cahbiiKc \rto\)QT {A idographa hrassiar Riley): a, male moth; 
h, egg from above atui from side; c, full grown larva in natural position 
feeding; d, pupa in cocoon — a, c, (/, one-third larger than natural size, 
h, more enlarged. (A tcr Howard and Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

cocoon, attached to the leaf upon which it has l)eeu feeding and 
in it transforms to the light-brown pupa. The pui)al stage varies 
from a week in midsummer to three weeks in October, and the 
pupa3 of the last l)ro()d hilx-inatc^ over wintiM-. 

The moth has a wing expanse of al)out 1{ inches, and the fore- 
wings are grayish brown mottled with gray, whitish, and l)lackish, 
as shown in Figs. 262, 263. Just inside of the centre of the fore- 
wings is a characteristic white spot. The hind-wings are paler 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND ("Rl'CIFEROUS CROPS 363 

brown, with the outer border darker, and the margins of both 
wings are strongly scalloped. 

Control. — The same general methods as advised for the imported 
cabbage worm will effect the control of this species. Sirrinc 
states that dusting the plants with Paris green has not proved 
satisfactory, l)ut found the use of Paris green with the resin soap 





Fig. ^63. — The cabbage looper moth at rest from side and from above — 
natm'al size. 

sticker (page 46) to Ije very effective. Arsenate of lead is more 
adhesive and is therefore superior for cabbage, but will be improved 
by the addition of the " sticker." 

The Cross-striped Cabbage Worm * 

Throughout the Southeastern and tiulf States the cater- 
pillar of a native moth, known as the Cross-striped Cabbage Worm, 

* Evergesfis rimomtlis Guen. P'amily Fyralidcc. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Bulletin 33, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 54. 



364 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

occasionally does very similar injury to the imported cabbage 
worm. The caterpillar is about three-fifths of an inch long, 
of a bluish-gray color above, with conspicuous cross stripes of 
black, as shown in the illustration. The parent moth is a pale 
ochre yellow color; the fore-wings expand about an inch, and are 
marked with brownish-black, as shown in the illustration, while 
the hind-wings arc nearly transparent except at the outer edge. 
Life History. — The caterpillars are to be found on cabbage in 
late May and early June at Washington, D. C. A\h('n full grown 
they go just below the surface of the earth and there construct 




Fig. 264. — The cross-striped cabbage worm {Evcnj'slis rimosalis) : a, moth ; 
6, egg-mass; c, sculptm-eof egg; (/, hirva; e, cocoon — a, d, c, twice natuial 
size; h, much enlarged; c, more enhirged. (After Chittenden, U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 

silken cocoons in which the pupal stage is i)assed and from which 
the moths emerge in about ten days. I'he eggs are laid in masses 
of a bright light-yellow color, from twenty to forty Ix-ing laid in a 
mass on the under surface of the leaf, and hatch in about a week. 
The caterpillars become full grown in from two to three weeks, 
so that the full life cycle may be passed in thii-ty days in mid- 
summer. It seems probable that at Washington, D. C, there 
are three generations each year, and that the winter is passed 
in the pupal stage. 

Control. — The same means of control advocated for the 
imported cabbage worm will prove effective for this species. 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 3(35 

The Imported Cabbage Webworm * 

Sometime in the early 90's another cabbage pest was imported 
from Europe, where it is common in the Mediterranean region, and 
was first noted as injurious in South CaroHna. Later it was found 
in Georgia and Alabama, and it is probable that it has now become 
more generally distributed through the Gulf and South Atlantic 
States. 

The imported cabbage webworm is about one-half an inch long. 




c 

Fig. 265. — The imported cabbage webworm {Hellula undalis Fab.): a, moth; 
b, larva side view; c, larva, back view; d, pupa — three times natural 
size. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



of a grayish-yellow color, striped with five brownish-purple bands. 
Its name is received from its habit of spinning a silken web, 
beneath which it retreats when not feeding, and to which masses 
of excreta and frass are attached. Cabbage and turnips have 
been most injured, but various other cruciferse are attacked. 
The parent moth has a wing expanse of about five-eighths of an 
inch and the fore-wings are of a grayish color, mottled with brown, 
black and white as shown in the figure. 

* Helhda undalis Fab. Family Pyralidae. See F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin 
19, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 51; Bulletin 23, Ibid., p. 54; W. M. 
Scott, Bulletin 1, Ga. State Board Entomology, p. 17. 



366 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORrilAHD 

Life Histori/. ~Thv life history has not Ix^cn folh)\V('(l lor tlio 
whole season, Ixit all of the staji'es have been ohsei'ved. Moths 
of what seemed to l)e the fii-st summer "'eneration weiv oljtained 
in late July. The egg;s are about on(>-twenty-fifth an inch 
in diameter, oval, and of a ii,i'ayish coloi-, turnin^!; pinkish in a 
day or two. They are laid siii^ily, usually in the " bud " of the 
turnip or cabbage. With a temperature of S()° F. they hatched 
in three days. The caterpillars become full grown in about 
eighteen days, and then si)in thin cocoons lietween the leaves 
in which they transform to pupa'. The pupal stage requires 
but about a week in midsummer, so that the moths emerge just 
about a month after the eggs were laid. The most seiious injury 
seems to occiu' in late sununei-, particularly to young fall cabbage 
and turnips. 

Control. — Use the same measures as advocated for the imported 
cabbage worm and the cabbage looper. 



The Diamond-back Moth ='= 

The larva of the imported diamond-hack niotli or cabbage 
plutella are commonly found on cal)bage wherever it is grown, 
and as a rule do but little injury, though occasionally they 
become troublesome. 

" The larva when full grown measvu'es three-tenths inch in 
length, tapers a little to the extremities, and is of a pale green 
color. It is active and irritable, in this respect being very- 
different from any of the larger larva? described." The wings 
of the parent moth '' are kept folded against the sides of the body, 
are a little tui'ued ut) at the tips, and are jjrovided with a long 
fringe. The color above on the head, thorax, and upper part 
of the clo.sed wings is a light clay-yellow. That i)art of the 
wings that is lowest when they are folded is bi'onzy ))rown, this 
color terminating abruptly where it meets the day-yellow of 
the back by a well-defined sinuous margin. The length from 

* Plutt'll I iiKtriili/irnnis Curtis. Family Tinrida-. 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 367 

the front of the head to the tip of the folded wings is about one- 
fourth incli."* 

" The eggs are whitish, very minute, and are attached to the 
leaves, though sometimes when very al:)undant they are, it is 
said, placed on the sides of crates holding cabbage." The full- 
grown larvae pupate in small cocoons composed of a delicate 
lace-work of silken threads through which the whitish, often 
brown-striped, pupa may be seen. In winter the cocoons con- 
taining pupa; are found on old cabbage stalks in the field or 
on stored cabbage. Two or three generations a vear occur in the 




^.^- / 



Fig. 266.— The cabbage plutella or diamond-back moth (PJiitdln maruH- 
pennis Curiifi): a, larvn; 6, segment of .same gn>atly enlarged; r/, pupa; 
e, pupa in cocoon; /, adult moth; g, wings of dark variety; h, moth 
with wings folded. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



more northern States and four or five generations farther south, 
while in the extreme South it may be found active practically 
throughout the year. The species has a world-wide distribu- 
tion. 

" During very dry weatlier these little insects become exceed- 
ingly common, and riddle the (■al:)bagc leaves with small holes. 
Wet weather, on the other hand, has long be(>n known to be 
unfavorable to them," and drenching the plants with water has 
l)een recommended as one of the best means of control. The 
same remedies applied for the other cabbage worms will readily 
control this little pest, if necessary. 

* H. Garman, Bulletin 114, Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 29. 



368 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



The Harlequin Cabbage-bug * 

Southern truckers have been famiUar with the harlequin 
cabbage-bug, " calico-back," " terrapin-bug," or " fire-bug," as 




Pig. 267. — Thi' harlequin cabbage bug (M unjontid Itidrionica Hahn.): a, 
eggs — enlarged; h, nymphs, more enlarged; '/, adults seen from above 
and below — enlarged; e, head and beak of same; /, parasite of eggs — 
enlarged; bugs and egg.« (a) on leaf, natural size. (After W. G. Johnson.) 

it is variously called, for the past generation. A native of 
Mexico and Central America, it migrated into Texas about 1864 

♦ Murgantia hiatrionica Hahn. Family Pentutotnidoe. See F. H. Chitten, 
den, Circular 103, Bureau Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; R. I. Smith, 
Journal Economic Entomology, Vol. H, p. lOS. 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 369 

and then spread eastward along the Gulf Coast, and northward 
until it reached Maryland and Virginia, about 1880, New 
Jersey in the early 90's, and up the Mississippi Valley to southern 
Ohio and Indiana by 1890. On the Pacific Coast it is found in 
southern California and Nevada. Although it spread to Long 
Island, N. Y., southern Pennsylvania, and northern Ohio, and 
Indiana, its advance was checked by the cold winters of the late 




Fio. 26S. — Field of rnhbagp in Del.iwnro rninpd by the harlequin bug. 

90's and it will probably never become very injurious noith of 
the Potomac and Ohio rivers. 

The appearance of the gayly colored bugs, shining black or 
deep blue, marked with brilliant red or orange, as shown in 
Fig. 267, is so distinctive that they are readily recognized, and 
given them the name of harlequin-bug or calico-back. They 
are about one-half inch long, flattened, and the general shape 
and markings have given them the local name of " terrapin 
l)ug." The bugs suck the sap from the leaves of cabbage and other 



^70 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, C.ARDEX AXD ORCHARD 

crucifers, tho plants wilting and d^ini!,', and tni^ninij l)lack as if 
thoy had been swept by fire; hence the name " fire-bug." A 
half-dozen of the adult bugs will destroy a small plant in a day 
or two, and as they frequently appear in enormous numl^ers and 
as they multiply rapidly, unless they are fought vigoi'ously they 
will soon destroy a large patch of cabbage. 

JAfe Histori/. — The adults hil)ernate over winter in old cabl)age 
stvmips and under the leaves and other rubbish left on the field, 
and emerge early the next spring. In South Texas they may 
be found at work nearly all winter, being common in February 
and March; in Xorth Carolina they appear about April 1st, and in 
Mar3dand about May 1st. The eggs of the first generation are 
deposited mostly on kal(\ wild mustard or other wild crucifei'u', 
each female laying about 100. They are placed in a double 
row of about a dozen and are white, mai'ked with two black bands 
and a small spot, which makes them look like small white barrels 
with Wack hoops. The eggs of the spring generation hatch in 
about ten days, and the nymphs feed upon the cabbage for from 
six to nine weeks before becoming full grown in Xorth Carolina 
and the District of Columbia, while in the (iulf States the eggs 
hatch in four to eight days and the nymphs become full grown 
in three or four weeks, the development of these stages being 
determined by the temperature; The nymphs are much like 
the adults in coloration, though differently marked and lacking 
wings. They molt five times, some of the different stages being 
shown in the figure. From North Carolina northward there 
seem to be but three generations of the insect. The summer 
generation develops more rapidly, the eggs hatching in four or 
five days, but the fall generation i-equii'es about the same time as 
in spring. In midsummer the whole life cycle may be pa.ssed in 
about two weeks in the (Iulf Stales, according to various author- 
ities, so that there nuiy be a half dozen gen(M-ations, though the 
exact life history does not seem to have ])vvn observed there. 

Control. — This is an exceedingly difficult pest to combat after 
it has become numerous in the cabbage patch, so that every effort 
should be made to prevent its appearance. As it hibernates under 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 371 

old stalks and leaves it is obvious that they should be cleaned up 
and the field plowed as soon as the crop is harvested. By leaving 
a few piles of stalks, leaves and rubl)isli, the bugs might be concen- 
trated and then destroyed. 

The most successful method of control yet devised is the u.se 
of a trap-crop, to which the bugs are lured as they emerge from 
liibernation and on which they may be desti-oyed ))efore they 
attack the cabbage. Kale planted in the fall or mustard planted 
early in the spring serves well for a catch crop, and should be 
planted in rows through the intended cabbage-field. The bugs 
seem to prefer the kale to the young caliliage, and while concen- 
trated upon it they should be killed l)y si:»raying them with pure 
kerosene. The trap-crop may well be phuited ut different dates, 
so that after one row has l)een destroyed by spraying, another will 
invite the remaining bugs. The nymphs may be destroyed by 
spraying them with 15 per cent kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap, 
one-half pound per gallon. Whale-oil soap used at the rate of 1 h to 2 
pounds to the gallon will kill most of the adult bugs hit by it 
without injury to the cal)l)age, but dependence should not be 
placed upon control by spraying, as its practicabilit}' on a large 
scale is yet to be demonstrated. 

The Cabbage-aphis * 

Whercn^er cabbage is grown the common " cabbage-louse " 
occasionally becomes abundant enough to do serious damage, 
often destroying young plants, which become covered with the 
disgusting masses of grayish aphides. They are found commonly 
in almost every cabbage-patch, but usually their natural enemies 
are so effective as to prevent their increase; otherwise they would 
be one of the most serious pests of cruciferous crops. They may 
be found on all of the cultivated and wild cruciferae, but cabbages 

* Aphis brassicce Linn. Family Aphididoe. See C. V. Riley, Report of 
U. S. Commissioner of Agriculture, 1884, p. 317^ C. M. Weed, " Insect 
Life," Vol. Ill, p. 289. G. W. Herrick, Journal of Economic Ent., Vol. IV. 
p. 219? F. H. Chittenden and C. H. Popenoe, Bulletin 2, Va. Truck Exp. 
Sta,, p. 22. 



372 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

and turnips are injured worst, serious damage often being done to 
turnips in the Soutli. 

" The wingless viviparous female has a rather long oval body, 
covered with a whitish mealy coat. When this coat has been 
removed . . . the body is seen to be a grayish-green color, with 
eight black spots down either side of the back, increasing in size 
toward the posterior end. The antennie are green with black tips 
and are shorter than the l)ody, and the eyes, legs and tail are 
black. The young when first hatched are oval, shining, bright 
yellow in color, and lack the mealy coat. The winged viviparous 
female is yellowish-green, with the eyes, neck and thoracic lobes 
black, and the antennte and nectaries dark brown. The legs are 




Fig. 269. — The cabbage-aphis {Aphis brassicce Linn.): a, winged form; 6 
wingless viviparous female — Greatly enlarged, (After Curtis.) 

dusky brown and hairy; the tail is dark green or l)rown and also 
hairy; the wings are rather shoi-t, with stout coarse veins and dark 
stigma." (Riley). 

Life History. — Though the cabbage-apliis is an old European 
species and was observed in this country as early as the latter part 
of the eighteenth century, its life history has only recently been 
carefully worked out by Professor G. W. Herrick and Mr. J.W. Hun- 
gate of Cornell University (I.e.), from whose account the following 
is taken: 

The oviparous females appear in the fall and are fertilized by 
the males, and deposit their eggs in large numbers on the leaves 
of the cabbage, during Octol^er and the first days of November, 
in central New York. The eggs are laid on rape, turnip, brussels 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 373 

sprouts and kohl-raiji, but are most abundant on cabbage, particu- 
larly in the crevices and depressions of the under surfaces of the 
leaves. On leaves taken at random from a badly infested patch, 
from 177 to 293 eggs were found on a leaf. Two to three eggs are 
laid by each oviparous female. When first laid the eggs are a 
yellowish-green, but soon turn a shining black. From eggs taken 
at random and left under normal outdoor conditions, 76 per cent 
hatched the next spring, while all eggs hatched which were laid by 
females known to have been fertilized. Eggs hatched about 
April 1, 1910, in central New York, the season being an early one. 
From the stem mothers which hatched from these eggs, twenty- 
one generations of wingless females were reared up to December 3, 
1910, the average length of a generation being about twelve days. 
During the summer generations of winged females are produced, 
especially on crowded plants, and these serve to spread the pest to 
unaffected plants. The wingless females become full grown in 
about thirteen days during the summer and live for about forty-six 
days, during which time they will give birth to an average of forty- 
one young, producing as high as six young in a day. The winged 
forms are much shorter lived, living only about ten days and giving 
birth to but from seven to thirteen young. 

There is no question that in the SouthtM-n States the viviparous 
females may continue to reproduce all winter, and it is quite prob- 
able that some of them survive in pits and cellars in the North, 
where eggs also probably occur. Thus Sirrine* states that it " is 
certain that this aphid can survive the winter on cabbage stored 
in cellars or pits, also that cabbage stored in pits for seed purposes 
furnishes the supply of aphides for infesting the seed stalks in early 
spring." This being the case it should be an easy matter to 
destroy the aphides by fumigation before removing them from 
the pits. 

Control. — From the habits outlined it is evident that, as for 

other cabbage pests, the refuse of the crop should be cleared up and 

destroyed in the fall. Any of the standard contact insecticides, 

such as kerosene emulsion, 1 part stock solution to 15 parts of 

* F. A. Sirrine, Bulletin S3, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 675. 



374 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

water, whale oil-suap, J pound to G gallons, or black leaf-tobacco 
extract, 1 part to 6-i of water, will destroy the aphides, but the 
spraying must be thorough, as the waxy coating serves to pro- 
tect them. According to Professor Franklin Sherman, any good 
laundry soap used at the rate of 1 pound dissolved in 3 gallons of 
water, will destroy the aphides. Where water under pressure is 
available in a small garden, the aphides may be held in check ])y 




Fig. 270. — The spinach-aphifci {Myzus persiav 8ulz.): which often becomes 
a cabbage pest: a, winged adult; b, young nynii)h; c, older nymph; d, 
last stage of nymph — all greatly enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 

washing them from the plants with a strong stream from a garden 
hose. Plants infested in tiie seed-bed may be freed from the 
aphis by dipping in whale-oil soap solution, 1 part to S of water. 

Fortunately for the grower, the cabbage-aphis is usually held 
in check by numerous parasitic enemies, principally little wasp- 
like flies of the family Braconidae, and by several species of lady- 
bird-beetles and syrphus-fly larvae, which will often destroy a 
colonv within a few davs. 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 375 

The Spinach-aphis or Green Peach-aphis * 

Another species of aphis often becomes destructive to cabbage, 
spinach, celery and lettuce, as well as various greenhouse crops. 
In the fall it migrates to peach, and is also known as the green 
peach-aphis, as which it is discussed on page 658. 

Flea-beetles t 

A considerable number of small flea-beetles attack cabbage and 
other cruciferous crops, and although as a rule only troublesome, 
they appear periodically in enormous numbers and do serious 
injury. They are mostly small species (there being seven species 
of the genus PhyUotreta alone) not over an eighth of an inch long. 
One of the most common throughout the country is the striped 
turnip flea-beetle. I It is polished black with each wing-covei- 
marked with a broad, wavy band of pale yellow. The microscopic 
white eggs are laid in a little excavation of the root near the ci"own 
of the plant. The larvae mine into the roots and have been 
reported to do considerable injury to them, but it seems prol)able 
that most of them live upon the roots of cruciferous weeds. The 
full grown larva (Fig. 270, a) is about three-eighths inch long, 
quite slender and tapering, yellowish white, with brown head and 
anal plate, and with marks on the thorax and transverse rows of 
minute hair-bearing tubercles as shown in the figure. The West- 
ern cabbage flea-beetle § is the more common from the Dakotas 
southward to Mexico and westward to southern California. It is a 
uniform deep olive-green, with the surface irregularly punctate, 
and Vioo inch long. Another species almost indistinguishable from 
the first species above, is the wavy-striped flea-beetle, t whose larvae 
mine in the leaves of wild pepper grass {Lepidium virginicum) , 

* Myzus persicoe Sulz. See footnote on page 658. 

t Family Chrysomelidce. Refer to pages 296, 335, for other flea-beetles. 
See. C. V. Riley, Report U. S. Commissioner Agr., for 1SS4, pp. .301-.308. 
X PhyUotreta vittata Yah. 
§ PhyUotreta pusiUa Horn. 
^ PInjUotreta sinuata Steph. {zimmermani Crotch.) 



376 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



and is most abundant in the Middle and Southern States. The 
life history has been fully described by Dr. Riley (I.e.). 

Control. — Where the plants are sprayed for the cabbage worms 
with Paris green or arsenate of lead, there will probably be little 
trouble with flea-beetles. Otherwise, spray with arsenate of lead, 
3 to 5 pounds per })arrel, or Paris gi-een one-third to one-half 
pound, adding the resin soap (see page 46) or " sticker," so as to 
give the foliage a good thick coating, for the spray probably acts 
fully as much as a repellant as a remedy. Where injury is antici- 
pated it will be well to dip the plants in arsenate of lead 1 pound 





Fig. 271. — The striped turnip flea- 
beetle {Phyllotreta vittata Fab.): 
a, larva; h, adult — greatly en- 
larged. (After Riley, U. S. D. 
Agr.) 



Fig. 272. — The western cabbage flea- 
beetle — much enlarged. (After Riley, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



to 10 gallons of water when planting them. By thoroughly dust- 
ing the plants with lime, land plaster, strong tobacco dust, dilute 
pyrethrum, or any of the dusts commonly used for such insects, 
applying the dust in the early morning while the dew is on the 
plants, they may be protected from attack as long as they are 
kept thoroughly covered. It is evident that the weeds upon 
which these pests develop in the larval stage should be destroyed. 
Where plants are attacked in the seed-bed, screening as advised 
for the root-maggot will prevent injury. Cloth with from 20 to 30 
threads to the inch has proven most satisfactory for the screens, 
which should be applied early and be made perfectly tight. 



INJURIOUS TO CABBAGE AND CRUCIFEROUS CROPS 377 

The Cabbage Curculio * 

A small weevil has proven injurious to early cabbage, particu- 
larly in seed-beds, in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Missouri and elsewhere. 
The cabbage curculio is a native of middle and northern Europe, 
where it is not known as doing much injury, and was first noticed 
in this country in Massachusetts in 1873. Since then it has spread 
over the Northern States and occurs in California. 

The adult weevil is of a broad, oval shape, about one-eighth 
inch long, and is covered with grayish scales, but is blackish when 




EiG. 273. — The cabbage curculio {Ceutorhynchus rapes Gyll.): o, beetle; 
6, same in profile; c, larva; d, head of same; e, pupa in cocoon ; a, b, c, e, 
eight times natural size; d, more enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. D. 

Agr.) 

these are rubbed off in old specimens. The weevils appear about 
the middle of April at Washington, D. C, and lay their eggs in the 
leaf stalks late in April. The grayish, oval egg is about one thirty- 
fifth inch long, and is inserted in a cavity eaten out by the female, 
which causes a very noticeable scar. The eggs hatch in about a 
week. The white, footless larvae are about one-fourth inch long 
and bore into the leaf -stems and stalks. " Larvae are found most 
numerous in the upper portion of stems, penetrating frequently as 

* Ceutorhyncus rapoe Gyll. Family Curculionidoe . See F. H. Chittenden, 
Bulletin 23, n. s.. Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 39, and F. M. Webster, 
Bulletin 77, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 50. 



378 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

high as the diameter of the stem will admit them. They also bore 
into the branches, and occasionally a short distance into the leaf- 
stalks. ... In many cases the leaf-stalks are killed or are so 
injured that they part from the stems when the latter are pulled 
up; and again, the stems, being so closely tunneled, often part above 
the middle, even dropping over, though not handled." The larvae 
complete their growth in about three weeks, cut their way out of 
the stalks and enter the earth, where they form small earthen 
cocoons just beneath the surface. In these they transform to 
pupae, from which the beetles emerge in about a week. The beetles 
are common in the middle of June at Washington, V:)ut disappear 
late in the month. 

A fortunate fact is that " cabbage appears to be one of the last 
plants attacked in the field when any other palatable crucifer is 
obtainable. The beetles not only greatly preferred hedge mus- 
tard {Sisymbrium officinale), and wild pepper grass, but appeared 
to attack also, by preference, turnip, horseradish and cauliflower."* 

Control. — This fact of the preference of the beetles for the wild 
food-plants might be utilized by using them as a trap-crop, planting 
them, if necessary, as advised for the harlequin cabbage-bug 
(page 371), and then removing and destroying them as soon as the 
beetles had oviposited, which wouUl prol)al)ly be about the middle 
of May in the latitude of Washington, U. C. Althougii no prac- 
tical experiments in its use seem to have been tried, a thorough 
application of arsenate of lead at from 3 to 5 pounds to 50 gallons 
would undoubtedly destroy many of the beetles when they are 
feeding on the foliage in early spring and after they emerge in June. 

* Quotations from Chittenden, I.e. 



CHAPTER XIX 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETO 

The Striped Cucumber-beetle t 

Just as the little cucumber and melon plants appear above the 
soil they are attacked by hordes of hungry l^lack-and-yellow-striped 
beetles, which feed ravenously upon the succulent seed-leaves, 




Fig. 274. — The striped cucumber beetle {Diabrotica villata Fab.): a, beetle; 
h, larva; c, pupa; d, egg; e, sculpture of egg — a, h, c, much enlarged; 
d, more enlarged; c, highly magnified. (After Chittenden, U. S. D. 
Agr.) 

often killing them entirely so that reseeding is necessary. This 
little striped beetle, often known as the '' striped-bug " or " melon- 
bug," is well known to all growers of cucurbs east of the Rocky 
Mountains, and also occurs in Washington. 

* See A. L. Quaintance, Bulletin 45, Geo. Agr. Exp. Sta.; J. B. Smith, 
Bulletin 94, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta..; R. I. Smith, Bulletins 205 and 214, No. 
Car. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

t Diabrotica vittata Fab- Family Chrysomelida. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Circular 31, Bureau Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; T. J. Headlee, 20th Report N. H. 
Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 499. 

379 



380 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The beetle is about two-fifths inch long and half as wide, of a 
bright yellow color with a ))lack head and three black stripes on the 
wing-covers. 

Life History. — The beetles hilx-rnate over winter in the grountl 
when; they have been feeding the previous fall, or along the edge of 
woodlands, or wherever suitable shelter is obtained, and emerge 
in the si)ring two or three weeks before cucurbs are planted. At 

this season they seem to feed on al- 
most anything, as they have been 
observed feeding on a long list of 
food-plants, freque ting flowers whose 
petals are eaten. As soon as squash, 
melons, or cucumbers break through 
the soil, they gather upon them and 
refuse all other food. If the foliage is 
covered with any offensive substance 
they will seek out spots which have 
not been reached and feed upon them, 
which fact is of importance in con- 
sidering remedies. After feeding upon 
cucurbs for a few days the beetles pair 
and the females commence to deposit 
Fig. 27.5.— Larva of striped t'gg«. The eggs are deposited singly 
oufuinl^er beetle at work ^j^fi ^re merely dropped in crevices of 
in cucumber stem. (Photo , ., . . . , ^, 

by Headlee ) the SOU or m the openmg around the 

stem of the plant. The egg is oval, 
al)out one-fortieth inch long, bright yellow, and sculptured with 
micioscoi)ic hexagonal i)its. A female lays about one hundred 
eggs during a period of a month, and they hatch in about eight 
days at a mean temp(>rature of 74° F. The larva is a slender, 
white, worm-like grub, about thr(»e-tenths inch long, with dark- 
brown head and anal-plate, and lighter brown thorax. The larva? 
bore into the roots, often tunneling into the base of the stem, and 
sometimes mine into melons lying on damp soil. Rarely does 
injury by the larvie become noticeable, though we have observed 
whole patches of cucumber and melon vines killed by them, which 




INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 381 

seems remarkable, considering the immense numbers of the beetles 
which must give rise to many times more larvae. The larva 
becomes full grown in about a month and then forms a delicate 
earthen cell just below the surface of the soil and in it transforms 
to the whitish pupa, from which the beetle emerges in from one to 
two weeks, according to the temperature. In southern New 
Hampshire the beetles emerge from the last of August to the first of 
October, the complete life cycle requiring from seven to nine weeks, 
there being but one generation a year, and this seems to be true 
in New York. In Kentucky the complete cycle requires but 




Fig. 276. — Wire screen cover for young cucurbs. (After Headlee.) 



thirty-nine days, and in the District of Columbia newly emerged 
beetles are found by mid-Jul.y, so that there are undoubtedly two 
generations in that latitude, as the beetles have been found pairing 
and with well-developed eggs in Delaware, August 1st. In the 
latter part of the season the beetles feed on the blossoms and 
pollen, particularly of squash, rarely touching the foliage. With 
the first frosty nights they seek shelter under the fallen leaves and 
enter hibernation with the first killing frosts. 

Control. — For a few plants or where the beetles are unusually 
abundant, coverings of netting have always been used to protect 
the plants. A barrel hoop cut in two, crossed, and the ends 
fastened to another hoop, and the whole then covered with netting, 



382 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

makes an atlniiiable cover, often sold by dealers. Two stout wires 
bent into arches and crossed, may also be covered with netting, 
the lower edge of which is held by earth packed over the edges. 
Or cone-shaped covers may be fashioned out of wire screening and 
kept from year to year. (See Hcadlce, I.e.) 

Many growers oln^iute loss of plants and the necessity of 
r(»])lanting ])y sowing the seed in rows rather thickly and then thin- 
ning out to the desired distance after the worst injury by the beetle 
is passed. Others make several i)lantings in each hill at intervals 
of a week, but the former plan will en.sure earlier growth. 

The growing of rows of eai'ly beans to act as a trap-crop has 
been suggested, as the beetles will gather on them, it is said, and 
having an abundance of food will not injure the cucurbits. Squash 
may be effectively used in this way as the beetles are peculiarly 
fond of the quick-growing squash seedlings. A week or ten days 
before the regular crop, plant i-ows of squash seed around and 
through the i)i'ospective field, and plant more rows when the regu- 
lar crop is planted. If the main crop ho kept well dusted or 
sprayed as advised below, the beetles will concentrate on the trap- 
squash and might be destroyed upon it by spraying with pure 
kerosene. 

Liberal fertilization with quick-acting fertilizers will aid the 
young plants to make a quick growth and thus outgrow the injury. 

Growers have long known that if the plants are kept thoroughly 
covered with some sort of dust that the beetles will not molest 
them, and various sprays have been used in the same way. To be 
effective the plants must be dusted in early morning while the 
dew is on and all parts of the plant, above and below, must be 
thoroughly covered. This must be repeated as often as the dust 
is washed or blown off, or the plant outgrows it. Air-slaked lime 
mixed with sulfur, tobacco dust, and bug-death have been the most 
effective, though similar powders will be found beneficial. Bor- 
deaux mixture has been reconunended for this purpose, but seems 
to have a stunting effect on the young plants. The most valuable 
repellant seems to be a spray of arsenate of lead 3 to 5 pounds per 
barrel. This not only repels the beetles better than any other 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 383 

substance tested by Dr. Headlee, but undoubtedly kills many of 
those which are forced to feed upon it. Professor Gillette reports 
that dry pyrethruni dusted on the plants while the dew is on will kill 
many of the insects. Sirrine found that in New York the beetles 
could be poisoned successfully with Paris green, but only while 
feeding in the spring before they commenced to pair, and in the 
fall, as they refused protected foliage after pairing commenced. 
Various repellants, such as kerosene, tiu'pentine, naphthalene or 
moth balls, and other similar odoriferous substances, have been 
strongly recommended, but careful tests have not demonstrated 
their efficiency. 

It is evident that the cleaning up of vines as soon as the crop 
can be gathered and the tlestruction of all refuse will deprive the 
beetles of food in the fall and force them to seek other hibernating 
places, thus increasing the mortality. 

The Melon-aphis * 

Just as the vines commence to run, a plant will be found here 
and there with the foliage curled up and wilting and within will be 
found masses of the greenish " melon lice," which have caused the 
injury by their nuuiy beaks sucking out the sap of the plant. If 
allowed to multiply unchecked and their natural enemies do not 
prevent their increase, they will sometimes become so abundant 
as 10 completely ruin a whole crop just as the melons are com- 
mencing to ripen. It is one of the -worst pests of cucurbs and one 
which requires constant vigilance on the part of the grower. 

The aphides are to be found on various weeds in early spring 
and appear on cucurbs soon after they start growth. Both winged 
and wingless females occur throughout the year. The wingless 
form is about one-fifteenth inch long and varies from light }^<»llow 
or tan colored to deep olive-green or deep green which appears 
almost blackish, the abdomen being always more or less mottled. 
The rather long, tapering, honey-tubes are jet black, and the legs 
and antennae pale whitish-yellow. The young nymphs always 

* Aphis gossypii Glover. Family Aphididoe. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Circular 80, Bureau of Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr. 



384 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

show a distinct yellowish-brown or pale salmon-colored area just 
in front of the honey-tubes and a dark transverse band l)etween 
them. The nymphs of the last stage, in which the wing pads arc 
visible, are marked on the back with little flecks of silvery white, 
waxy bloom. The winged female is about the same length and the 
wings expand one-fifth to one-quarter inch. The color varies as 




Fig. 277. — The melon aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.): a, winged female; aa, 
enlarged antenna of same; ab, dark fentale, side view, sucking juice 
from leaf; 6, young nymph; c, last stage of nymph of winged form; 
d, wingless female — greatly enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. D. Agr.) 



in the wingless form, but there are l)lack spots along the; sidcvS 
of the abdomen, and the head and thorax are dark as shown in 
Fig. 277. 

The melon-aphis is found throughout the country southward 
through Central America, and though it often does serious damage 
in the North it is worse in the South. It has a long list of food 
plants, among the croi)s injured by it being all the cucurbs, cotton, 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 385 

okra, orange, and its occasional food-plants include many others, 
as it is found on a long list of weeds, most abundantly on shep- 
herd's purse and pepper-grass, upon which it midtiplies in early 
spring and probably passes the winter. 

Life History. — The life history is much the same as that of most 
of our common aphides, though of some phases we are still in 
ignorance in spite of the most careful study. The females give 
birth to from four to ten aphides a day, depending upon the tem- 
perature and food supply, and these become full grown in from six 
to eight days. As the affected leaf becomes non-succulent the 
aphides migrate to another leaf and often cluster on the terminal, 
which is checked and stunted. As they become more numerous, 
winged forms migrate to other plants and within two weeks a 
colony of fifty or more will form the progeny of every one born 
by the immigrating female. Reproduction seems to go on this 
way throughout the year, being stopped only by the cold of win- 
ter, as far as has been observed. No true sexual forms or eggs, as 
are known to occur with other nearly related species, have been 
observed, and the viviparous forms have been found throughout 
the winter in Colorado and Texas. 

Enemies. — Fortunately the melon-aphis is subject to the unre- 
mitting attack of many insect enemies, the list including some 
thirty-five species. Among the more important are the common 
ladybird-beetles and their larvte, of which the convergent lady- 
bird,* the nine-spotted ladybird, f and the spotted ladybird, J 
shown in Figs. 1-5, are among the most effective, and the maggots 
of various common syrphus-flies, and the aphis-lions. § Even 
more beneficial are the little parasitic flies whose larvse live within 
the maggots and destroy myriads of them with incredible swift- 
ness. The most common of these f are the same as the most 
common parasite of the green bug (Fig. 1 13) , and they often destroy 
the aphides over a whole field in a few days. They are most effect- 

* Hippodamia convergens Guer. 

t Coccinella 9-notata Herbst. 

X Megilla maculata DeG. Family Coccinellidoe. 

§ Family Chrysopidce. 

^ Lysiphlebus testaceipes Cress. Family Braconidce. 



386 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




Fk:. 278. — Melon npliidos whioh h.ivo been killed by parasites on cotton leaf. 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 387 

ive In bright, warm weather, when they reproduce most rapidly, 
but in cool, moist weather they reproduce but slowly, and if such 
a summer follows similar weather conditions during the spring, the 
aphides multiply rapidly without a corresponding increase of their 
enemies and serious damage results. Inasmuch as these same 
enemies attack the cabbage-aphis, Professor C. E. Sanborn * has 
suggested that the cabbage-aphis might he encouraged to nudtiply 
on crops planted near melons or cucumbers, so that an abundance 
of parasites and insect enemies might be in readiness to attack the 
melon-aphis when it appears. This might be done by planting 
kale, rape, or wild mustard in the fall, upon which the cabbage- 
aphides will pass the winter and will multiply in early spring. 
This trap-crop should be planted in rows around the prospective 
melon-field, and if the latter be lai'ge, rows should be planted 
through it. If the kale does not soon become infested with the 
cabbage-aphis, transport some from the nearest cabbage-patch. 
The ladybirds and parasites multiply rapidly with plenty of the 
cabbage-aphides for food, and as soon as the food supply becomes 
scarce they are forced to migrate and will search out any colonies 
of melon-aphides. 

Control. — The most important factor in the control of this, 
as well as many other aphides, is constant watchfulness, inspect- 
ing the plants frequently and destroying badly infested individual 
plants and treating small areas l^efore the pest becomes spi'ead 
throughout the crop. 

Where a few young plants are affected or before the leaves have 
become badly curled, the aphides may l)e destroyed by spraying 
with kerosene emulsion, containing 5 to S per cent kerosene, 
whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 5 gallons of water, or tobacco extracts. 
Emulsion must be carefully made or burning will result. The 
aphides must be hit to destroy them, and it is necessary to use an 
underspray nozzle (page 75), or to turn the vines over and then 
re-turn them, so that all the aphides may be covered. After 
the foliage is well curled it is practicalh' impossible to reach the 
aphides by spraying, and fumigation must be used. 
* See Bulletin 89, Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 4-t. 



388 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Fumigation is much the most satisfactory method of destroy- 
ing the aphides, for it will kill them all even though the leaves be 
curled. Carbon bisulfide was formerly used quite extensively 
for this pur))()S(', a teaspoonful being applied for each cubic foot 
of space iiiidcr the tub, l)ox, or cover used. Recently, however, it 
has been shown that tobacco-papei- is a nuu-h more satisfactory 
fumigant and it has been (^xt(Misively \ised with excellent I'esults. 
A light frame is made large enough to cover the size of plants to be 
treated and covered with cheap nuislin which is sized with oil. 
The cloth should extend on the ground for about a foot, so that 
it may be covered with earth. One man can look after about 
ten frames. After tlic frame is placed over the plant a sheet 
()i- half sheet of the tobacco-paper (according to the brand used 
and experience with it) is torn in two and a half placetl in 
perforated tin cans in opposite corners of the frame, and ignited. 
Earth is then heaped over th(^ flap and the fumigation should 
continue ten to thirty minutes, according to the strength used, 
and other conditions, as experience will determine. This treat- 
ment has the advantage that it destroys all of the aphides while 
the predac(H)us and parasitic insects are merely stupefied and 
soon revive and feed on any remaining aphides. "Fumigating- 
kind " tobacco powder might prol)al)ly l)e used instead of paper 
and is used veiy extensively for the same purpose in fumigating 
green-houses for this pest. Many tobacco preparations are on 
the market for greenhouse fumigation and will usually be found 
satisfactorv when used as directed. 



The Squash-bug * 

About the time the vines l)egin to run a wilted leaf is found 
here and there which examination shows to l)e due to the common 
brownish-black squash-bug. If search l)e made in early morning, 
the bugs will usually be found secreted imder clods of earth, or 

* Anasa trifitis DeG. Family Coreidce. See Weed and Conradi, Bulletin 
89, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. H. Chittenden, Circular 39, Div. Ent., U. S. 
Dept. Agr. 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 389 




Fig. 279. —Squash-bugs and nymphs at work on young plant — natural size. 



390 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



whatever rubbish may be near the \ines. They are about 
three-quarters inch long, and loo well known to need other 
description. 

Life History. — For the next month or six weeks the females 
deposit their eggs, mostly on the under sides of the leaves. They 
are oval, about one-sixteenth inch long, laid in irregularly 
shaped clusters. When newly laid they are pale yellow-])rown, 
but this soon grows darker, so that the stage of their development 

may be told by the color. 
In from six to fifteen days, 
depending upon tlie tem- 
perature, the eggs hatch. 
The young nynn)hs are 
l)rilliantly colored, the an- 
tenmc and legs Ijeing bright 
crimson, the head and an- 
terior thorax a lighter crim- 
son, and the posterior thorax 
and abdomen a bright green, 
but in a little while the 
crimson changes to a ]v\ 
black. The young bugs re- 
main near each other, suck- 
ing the juices from the 
foliage and soon causing the 
leaves to wither. During 
their growth, which requires 
four to five weeks, they moult some five times. The adult bugs 
appear in August, but in the North they neither mate nor lay eggs 
that season, but feed until frosts blacken the leaves, when the}- dis- 
appear into winter quarters, hil)ernating along the edge of wood- 
lands, beneath lea\'es, under logs, boards or whatever shelter 
may be available. In the South there are probably two or three 
broods a year according to the latitude. 

Control. — The eggs are easily seen and should be picked off 
and destroyed. The adults cannot be killed I)}' insecticides, but 




Fig. 280. — Eggs of the squash-bug — en 
larged. (Photo by R. I. Smith.) 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 391 

the nymphs may be destroyed by spraying with kerosene emulsion. 
The adult bugs may be readily trapped by placing small pieces 
of board or similar shelter near the vines, under which they will 
hide at night and from which they may be gathered in the early 




Fig. 281. — The squash-hiig : n, ma- 
ture female; h, sitle view of head 
showing beak; c, abdominal seg- 
ments of male; d, same of female; 
a, twice natural size; b, r, d, more 
enlarged. (After Chittenden, U . S- 
Dept. Agr.) 



Fig. 282. — The squash-bug: adult at 
left, and ditTerent stages of nymphs 
— about Ih times natural size. 
(Photo by Quaintance.) 



morning. Cucumbers and melons may be protected by planting 
early squash among them, as the Inigs prefer the squash, from 
which the}' may be collected. Cleaning up the vines in the fall 
is evidently of importance in nMlucing the number which will 
hibernate. 



The Squash Ladybird * 

Although almost all of the ladyljird l^eetles are exceedingly 
beneficial, this species, with its near relative the bean-lad3-bird 
(page 315,) are the exceptions which prove the rule, being the only 

* Epilachna borealis Fab. Family Coccinellidce. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Bulletin 19. n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; J. B. Smith, Bulletin 94, N. J. 
Agr. Exp. Sta. 



392 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

injurious forms with which we have to contend. Both the beetles 
and larvae feed on the foliage of various cucurbs, but prefer that 
of the squash. It is an Eastern species, not being injurious we.st 
of the Mississippi and being most troublesome in the Middle 
Atlantic States. The ])eetle is nearly liemisplierical in shape, 
sliglitly oval, about one-tliii'd inch long, yellowish or reddisli- 
brown, marked with si^vcn Ijlack spots on each wing-cover and 
four smaller ones on the thorax as shown in Fig. 283. 

Life History. — The life-history, as given by Dr. Chittenden for 
the District of Columbia and northward, is as follows: "The 




Fig. 283. — The squash ladybiid {Epilachne borealiii Fab.): a, hirva; b, pupa; 
c, adult beetle — three times natural size; d, egg — four times natural 
size; e, surface of egg highly magnified. (After Chittenden, U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 



insect hibernates in the adult condition under bai'k or other 
convenient shelter and appears abroad sometime in May or 
June. r>gg dc^position has been observed in the latter part of 
June, and there is evidence that the eggs are deposited also much 
later." The eggs are about three-tenths inch long, elongate- 
oval, of a }-ellow color, and laid in irregular clusters of from 12 to 
50. " They hatch in from six to nine days, and the larva) begin to 
feed at once on the leaves, causing them to wither and die." The 
larva is yellow, with six rows of black branching spines, and is 
about one-half inch long when grown. " The larva attains full 
development in from two to four weeks, ceases feeding, and attaches 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 393 

itself by its anal extremity to a leaf, and next day sheds its larval 
skin, which is pushed down toward the end of the body, when the 
pupa stage is assumed. The la va matures anytime from the 
middle of July to near the mid- 
dle of September. In the pupa 
state the insect remains from 
six to nine days, when the skin 
separates do^\Ti the back and 
the perfect beetle emerges, 
the new brood appearing as 
early as the last of July. 
After feeding for some time 
the beetles disappear for hiber- 
nation, . . . Ix'gimiing about 
the middle of September." 
The adults have the habit of 
marking out a circular area 
of the leaf, which seems to 
cause the tissue to wilt, and 
then feeding within this area. 
The larvae are to be found 
feeding on the under surface of 
the foliage in July and August. 

Control.—V snally hand picking the beetles and eggs will 
control the pest, but if alxmdant it ma}^ be readily destroyed by 
spraj'ing or dusting with arsenicals. 













, 


1 




lb 


^ 


^ 




''4 




H 


1 


1 


fi| ' 


1 


/■f>i_^^ 


, 


^^ " 




i 


i.,;., 




1 




, 


1 

i 
1 



Fig. 284.— Work of the squash lady- 
bh-d — greatly reduced. (After W. 
E. Britton.) 



The Squash-vine Borer * 

In many localities the most serious pest of squash is the 
Squash-vine Borer, and although other cucurbs are sometimes 
injured, they are relatively free from attack if squash or pumpkins 
are present. The larvae bore in the stems, causing them to rot 



* Melittia satyriniformis Hbn. Family Sesiidce. 
of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



See Circular 38, Bureau 



394 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

where affected, so that they ])reak off and the plant wilts and dies. 
The presence of the borer is indicated by the coarse yellowish 
excrement which it forces from its burrow and which is found 
on the ground beneath, and by the sudden wilting of the leaves. 
Injury is most severe at the base of the vine, which gradually 
decays, so that it is severed and the whole plant dies. A half- 
dozen or more larva? are often found in a single stem, and as many 
as forty have been taken from one vine, the larva? attacking all 




Fig. 285. — The sciuush-vinc Ixjrcr (Mclillia satyrinifonuis Hbn.): a, male 
moth; b, female with wings folded at rest ; c, eggs shown on bit of stem; 
(/, full-grown larva in vine; c, jjiipa; /. jjiipal cell — all one-third larger 
than natm-al size. (^ After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



parts of the vine and even the petioles and large ribs of the 
leaves when abundant. Injury is worst on Hubbard, marrow, 
cymlings and late varieties of squash. 

The adult is one of the clear-winged mot lis with a wing expanse 
of about 1| inches, the fore-wings being opaque, dark olive- 
green in color, with a metallic lustre and a fringe of brownish 
black. The hind- wings are transpart^nt, witii a bluish reflection, 
and the veins and marginal fring(> black. The aljdomen is marked 
with orange, or red, black and ]:)ronze, antl the legs are bright 
orange, with tarsi black with white bands. The species occurs 
throughout the States east of the Rockies and southward into 
Central and South Amei-ica. 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBJERS, SQUASH, ETC. 395 

Life History. — The moths appear soon after their food-plants 
start growth, from mid-April along the Gulf Coast to June 1st, 
in New Jersey, and late June or early Jul}' in Connecticut. They 
fly only in the daytime, and their clear wings and brightly marked 
bodies give them a close resemblance to large wasps. The eggs 
are laid on all parts of the plant, but chiefly on the stems, par- 
ticularly near the base. The oval egg is of a dull red color and 
about one-twenty-fifth inch long. The moth deposits her 




P'iG. 286. A squash stem cut open showing borers within. (Photo by Quain- 

tance.) 



eggs singly, and one individual has been observed to lay as many 
as 212. They hatch in one or two weeks. The young larva enters 
the main stem and tunnels through it, and often centers the leaf- 
petioles branching from it. It is a soft, stout , whitish caterpillar, 
with a small black head, and about one inch long when full grown. 
The larvie reach maturity in about four weeks and then enter 
the earth, where they make tough silken cocoons, coated with 
particles of earth, an inch or two below the surface. In the 
South the larvae transform to pupse from which a second generation 



396 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

of moths emerges in late July, l)ut in the North the larvae hibernate 
in the cocoons over winter, and transfoi-m the next spring. The 
pupa is about five-eighths inch long, dark brown, and with 
a horn-like process on the head between the eyes. By the aid 
of this the pupa cuts open one end of the cocoon and with the 
hook-like spines on the abdomen wriggles to the surface of the 
earth before transforming to the moth. As indicated, there is 
but one generation in the North, a partial second brood in the 
latitude of New Jersey and the District of Columbia, and two 
full generations in the South. 

Control. — As the larvae work within the vines, insecticide 
treatment is useless, and the pest must be controlled by methods 
of culture. 

Obviously the vines should be raked uj) and tlestroyed as 
soon as the crop is gathered, so as to destroy all of the borers 
within them. As the larvte or pupae hibernate over winter in 
the soil, it has been found that frequent light hai'rowing in the 
fall will ])ring them to the surface, and that deep plowing in the 
early spring will then bury any surviving so that the moths 
cannot emerge. Rotation of the crop will evidently decrease the 
number of moths. Wlun-e the pest is abundant late scjuash may 
be protected ])y planting rows of early summer sc|uashes as soon 
as possil^le. These will attract the moths so that there will be 
relatively few eggs deposited on the main crop planted later. As 
soon as the early crop is gathered, or as soon as it becomes well 
infested, if it is used only for a trap, the vines should be raked 
up and burned so as to destroy all eggs and larvae. It is well 
to cover the vines with earth on(> or two feet from the base 
so as to induce the growth of secondary i-oots, which will support 
the plant in case the vine is severed lower tlown. The old- 
fashioned method of slitting the vines with a knife and thus 
killing the borers is about the only means of destroying them 
after they have become established. The position of a borer 
may be detected by the excrement extruded from its bu'Tow, 
and if the wound be covered with moist earth it will assist the 
healinti. 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 397 

The Pickle Worm * 

The pickle worm is so called because it was first noted as 
injuring cucumbers grown foi' ])ickling, but in (he (lulf States, 
where it is most injurious it is more commonly a pest of melons, 
and, with the following species, with whicli it is often confused, 
is often known as the " melon worm." Injury in the Middle 
States occurs only periodically, though it has been noted in 
Illinois and southern Michigan, but in the (Julf States it is always 
a serious pest of all the cucurbs, destroying tiie lilos-oms, mining 
the stems, and boring into the ripening fruit. 

The moth has a wing expanse of aliout 1 \ inches, is yellowish- 
brown with a purplish iridescence, and is readily recognized by 
an irregular yellowish transparent spot on the middle of the 
fore-wings, and the basal half of the hind-wings of the same color. 
The abdomen terminates in a conspicuous brush of large blackish 
scales. 

Life History. — The moths emerge in late spring and deposit 
the eggs either singly oi' in clusters of 3 to 8 on the flowers, buds, 
or tender terminals. The yellowish-white egg is about one- 
thirtif^li inch long, and I'athei- elliptical. The first larvae 
are to be found in Georgia by the middle of Jinie. The young 
larvae which hatch from eggs laid on the terminals bore into 
stems and leaves and later often tunnel out the vines like the 
squash-vine borer. Those from eggs laid on the blossoms usu- 
ally feed in the blossoms, and a half-dozen may often be 
found feeding in single squash blossoms, for which they seem 
to have a decided preference. As they grow older the larvae 
wander from one plant to another, often boring into several 
fruits. The older larvaj bore into the fruit, the excrement 
being pushed out from the orifice and later accumulating in 
the cavity within. A single larva l)oring into the rind will do 
sufficient injury to start decay and ruin the fruit, and often a 

* Diaphania nitidalis Cramer. Family Pyraustidae. See A. L. Quaintance, 
Bulletin .54, Geo. Agr. Exp. Sta., R. I. Smith, Bulletin 214, N, C. Agr, 
Exp, Sta, 



398 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



half-dozen or more will be found in a single melon. Until half 
grown the larvae are marked wntli transverse rows of ))la('k 
spots. Tlie fvdl-grown larva is about three-quarters inch long. 




Fig. 287. — The pickle worm {Diaphauia nilidalis Cramer) : larva, pupa, and 
adult — all enlarged. (Photos by Quaintance.) 

greenish or yellowish-green, with head and prothoracic shield 
brown. The larva reaches maturity in about two weeks, when 
a thin silken cocoon is made in the fold of a leaf in which the 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 399 



pupal stage is assumed, whicli occupies about a week. Tlie pupa 
is one-half to one inch long, brown, with wing and leg sheaths 
Jighter, and the tip of the abdomen bears a group of short curved 
spines which hold the pupa more securely in the cocoon. During 
July and August the complete life cycle requires about Tour weeks 
in Georgia, and at least three definite generations have been 
recognized, the injury by the 
larvse being most severe in 
July and August, evidently 
by the second generation. 
The winter is passed in the 
pupal stage in the foliage or 
trash remaining on the field. 
Control. — As injury is worst 
in late summer, early plant- 
ings and early-maturing va- 
rieties are but little injured. 
The thorough destruction of 
the vines, foliage, and trash 
on the field after the crop is 
secured is of the utmost im- 
portance in controlling this 
as well as other pests of 
cucurbs, and may probably 
be accomplished with this 
species by deeply plowing 
under the refuse. Professor 
A. L. Quaintance, to whom 
we are indebted for our knowl- 
edge of this pest, has found that the moths greatly prefer to 
oviposit on squash and that it may be successfully used as a 
trap-crop for the protection of other cucurljs. Rows of summer 
squash should be planted through the cucumber or melon fields 
as early as possible, the rows being planted every two weeks so 
there will be flowers through July. The squash l^loom, with the 
contained larva?, must be collected and destroyed at frequent 




Fig. 288. — Sciiiash flower infested 
with ])ickle worms. (Photo by 
Quaintance.) 



400 INSECT PESTS GF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

intervals. Otherwise the .squasii will merely augment the injury, as 
the larvte will migrate to the crop. Careful tests of this method 
showed almost complete protection to muskmelons. The use of 




Fig. 289 — Pickle worms at work on a cucumber. (Photo by Quaintance.) 

arsenicals has been of little value against this pest as far as tested, 
but as they should be applied to control the next species, may be 
of some incid(nital value. 



The Melon Caterpillar * 

This sp(>cies is very similar to the last in lif(^ history and habits 
and is very connnonly confused with it. It seems to be injiu'ious 
only in the Gulf States, though the moths have been taken from 
Canada to Central America. The moth is a beautiful insect with 
wings of a pearly iridescent whiteness, ])ordered with brownish- 
black and expanding about an inch. The anterior half of the 
thorax and head is the same color as the wing border, while the 
abdomen is white, tinged with brownish toward the tip, which is 
surmounted l)y a l)rush of long dai'k scales. The larvte are very 
similar to those of the pickle woi-ni, and the life history so far as 
ascertained secmis to ])e practicall}' the same. The essential differ- 

* Diaphanin hyulinita Liim. Family PiiraUfitidw. Sec A. L. Quaintance, 
Bulletin 45, Geo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 12; R. I. Smith, Bulletin 214, N. C. 
Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INJURIOUS TO MELONS, CUCUMBERS, SQUASH, ETC. 401 



ence in the habits of this species is that the young larvse very com- 
monly feed on the fohage. Later 
on they mine into the stems and 
fruit and are readily confused 
with those of the last species. 

Control— Tho fact that tlu^ 
,youno- larvie feed on the foliage 
makes it possible to destroy 
them with arsenicals, and by 
spraying the young foliage with 
arsenate of lead 3 pounds to the 
barrel, as advised for the striped 
cucumber-beetle, they should be readily controlled. The cultural 
methods advised for the control of the last species will of coui'se 
be equally applicable for this. 




Fi<^. 290. — The melon-worm moth 
{Diaphania hyalinita Linn.) — en- 
larged. rPhoto by Quaintance.) 




Fig. 29L — The melon-^orm — enlarged. (Photo by R. I. Smith.) 



CHAPTER XX 

MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 

The Pale-striped Flea-beetle * 

Enormous numliers of the Pale-striped Flea-beetles often 
appear in late June or early July and nearly ruin the young crops 
they may attack before being brought under control. Such out- 
breaks occur only periodically, so that usually the grower is unpre- 
pared to cope with them, which is true of the appearance of many 





Fig. 292. — The pale-stripod flea-beetle {Systena blanda Mels.): a, larva; 
b, beetle; c, eggs; d, sculpture of egg; e, anal segment of larva from side; 
/, s me from above; n, d, six times natural size; e, f, more enlarged; 
g, the banded flea-beetle {Syslena treniala Say)— six times natural size. 
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

of our worst insect pests. These fiea-beetles are almost omnivorous 
as regards food, for although particularly injuiious to corn and 
tomatoes, they have also injured beans, l)eets, potatoes, egg-plant, 
carrots, melons and other cucurbs, turnips and other crucifers, 

* Systena blanda Mels. I'^amily Chrysomelidae. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Bulletin 23, n.s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 22; S. A. Forl)es, 18th Report 
State Ent. 111., p. 21. 

402 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 403 

strawberry, cotton, oats, peanuts, pear foliage, etc., and many com- 
mon weeds, so that it may be safely said that when abundant they 
will attack almost any crop at hand. The species seems to occur 
practically throughout the United States, but injury has been most 
common in the Middle States east of the plains. 

The beetle is about one-eighth inch long, cream-colored, with 
the wing-covers marked with three stripes of dull light-brown, 
and the eyes and abdomen are black. A nearly related species, 
the banded flea-beetle,* is very similar in appearance, the dark 
stripes being expanded until it is a polished black with two 
white stripes (Fig. 292 b), and the two species have until recently 
been commonly considered as identical. They are similar in life 
history and habits so far as known, and may be considered as 
the same for practical purposes. 

Life History. — Very little is known of the life history. The 
beetles usually appear in late June and early July, coming out in 
enormous numbers, gnawing small holes in the foliage of the plants 
attacked, so that when abundant they completely defoliate the 
plant in two or three days and often necessitate replanting. Dr. 
Chittenden has observed the eggs, which were deposited in the 
District of Columbia from June 10th to July Sth. The egg is ellip- 
tical, about one-fortieth inch long, and light buff-yellow in 
color. The larvae feed on the roots of various common-weeds, 
including lambsquarter and Jamestown weed. They were 
observed to be full grown by the middle of May in central Illinois 
and pupated May 26th, from which beetles emerged June 17th. 
The larva is a whitish, slender grub much like those of other flea- 
beetles. It is about one-eighth inch long when full grown, with 
light-brown head, and the anal segment tapers to a conspicu- 
ous prolonged process, surmounted at the apex by a number of 
stiff, spiny hairs. From the data recorded it would seem probable 
that the insect winters in the larval stage on the roots of various 
weeds and develops to the adult in early summer when the 
eggs are laid. There seems to be no direct evidence of a second 
generation. 

* Systena toeniata Say. 



404 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Control. — The destruction of the weeds on which the larvse 
develop is of obvious importance, arid it would be well to plow 
under deeply any fields grown up in weeds during late summer. 
Bordeaux mixture is possibly the best repellant for these beetles, 
though they will be di-iven off by covering the plants with any 
dust which thoi-oughly coats the foliage. Usually the ])est method 
will be to spray the plants thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture 
containing 3 pounds of arsenate of lead or one-third pound Paris 
green per barrel. All parts of the foliage must ])e thoroughly 
coated. Good success has also attended dusting the plants with 
Paris green and flour and bj^ spraying the beetles with kei'osene 
emulsion. Powdered arsenate of lead dusted over the foliage 
while the dew is on would probably prove effective, or it might l)e 
sprayed at the i-ate of 3 to T) pounds to the barrel. 

The Tarnished Plant-bug * 

The tarnished plant-bug is one of the most common and 
troul)le.some plant-bugs throughout the country from Canada to 
Mexico. Seemingly it is nearly omnivorous, as it attacks almost 
all of the common gardcm crops, small fruits, tender shoots of fruit 
trees and young nursery trees, many flowering plants, and most of 
our common weeds. Both nymphs and adults injure the plants 
by sucking out the juices, and on many plants a small black spot 
appeal's where the insect has been feeding, which causes a deform- 
ation of the stem or leaf, as in the " buttoning " of strawberries, 
or tends to " blight " the terminal as in the case of daidias, pota- 
toes, and similar crops. 

The adult is nearly one-quarter inch long, of a brassy- 
brown color, marked with black and yellow, and the thorax with 
red. The color and markings are c|uite variable. The nymphs 
feed upon the same plants as the adults and pass through four 
stages, shown in Fig. 293. The first stage is only one-twentieth 
inch long and yellowish or yellowish-green. The second stage 

* Lygus pratensis Linn. P'amily Capsidce. See Stedman, Bulletin 47. 
Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 



405 



is about twice as larg'c, and similarly colored, except that there are 
two pairs of dark spots on the thorax and one on the middle of the 
third abdominal segment, which grow more distinct in the last two 
stages. With the third stage the small wing pads become visible 
and in the fourth stage they extend halfway down the abdomen. 

Life Historij. — The adults hiljernate over winter under any 
shelter available, such as the trash on affected fields, under 
leaves, boards, stones, etc., and emerge in early spring. The 
eggs are laid in Missouri in April. But little is known of the 




Fig. 293. — The tarnished plant-bug {Lygiis pratcnsis Linn.): o, b,c,d, four 
stages of nymphs; f, adult bug — all about four times natural size. (After 
Forbes and Cliittendcn, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



places of oviposition, except that Taylor * has shown that 
sometimes apples are severely dimpled by llic egg punctures. 
It is evident, therefore, that the eggs are inserted in the stems 
or leaves of the food-plants. The pale yellow egg is about 
one-thirtieth inch long, oval, elongate, and flared at the 
outer end, so as to be somewhat bottle-shaped. The first genera- 
tion becomes full grown in about a month, after which all stages 
* See E. P. Taylor, Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. I, p. 370. 



406 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

may be found feeding together until September or October. 
In southern Missouri Professor Stedman states that there are 
three generations, while in northern Missouri only two, but the 
exact number has not been carefully determined. 

Control. — This is an exceedingly difficult insect to control, 
owing to the large number of food-plants and the fact that the 
adult takes wing and flies off quickly upon the least disturbance. 
As it sucks its food, arsenical insecticides are of course useless, 
and some contact insecticide must be used with which the insect 
may be hit. The nymphs may be sprayed at any time, but to 
hit the adult bugs they must be sprayed in early morning, while 
still sluggish. Spraying will be profitable where the nymphs 
are abundant, but it is doul^tful whether it will hv found a satis- 
factory means of comliating the adults. Ten per cent kerosene 
emulsion and tobacco extracts have been used successfully. 
Where they are abundant the adults may be collected in consider- 
able numbers by sweeping the foliag(> in early morning with a 
strong insect net and then dropping them into kerosene. Clean 
culture, including the destruction of all weeds, and such vegeta- 
tion or trash as may furnish hibei-nating quarters, are important, 
as it is observed that injury is always worse where weeds have 
been allowed to multiply and tlu^ ground has been covered with 
weeds and trash. 

The Garden Webworm * 

The term garden webworm is possibly a misnomer, for although 
these little catei'pillars frecjuently do mor(> or less injury to various 
garden crops when they become overabundant and migrate to 
them from the weeds on which they noi-mally f(^ed, and occasionally 
do some damage to sugar Ijeets, they are best known as a pest of 
corn and cotton. Though the species occurs throughout the 
United States and south to South America, it has been most 
injurious from Nebraska southward and east to Mississippi and 

* Loxostege mmilaUs Gn. Family Fyraustidce. See ('. V. Riley, Report 
U. S. Comm. Agr. for 1885, p. 26.5; Sanderson, Bulletin 57, Bureau of Ento- 
mology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 11. 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 



407 



Illinois. The larvse feed normally on the pigweed or careless 
weed (Amaranthus spp.) from which they sometimes receive the 
local name of " careless worm," and only when they become 
overabundant on these weeds do they usually increase sufficiently 
to migrate from them and attack crops. 

The moth is a yellowish, buff or grayish-l)i'own color, marked 
as shown in Fig. 294, and with a wing expanse of about three- 
quarters of an inch. The larva also varies in color from pale and 
greenish-yellow to dark yellow, and is marked with numerous 
black tubercles as shown in Fig. 294, b, c. 

Life History. — The hibernating habits are not known . Init from 
analogy with the beet wel)woi-m, and the a])]:)earance of the 




Fig. 294. — The garden webworm {LoxoHleqe siinilnlis Gn.): a, male moth; 
h, c, larvae; d, anal segment of same; e, abdominal segment of same from 
side; /, pupa; g, tip of abdomen of same; a, b, c, /, somewhat enlarged; 
d, e, g, more enlarged. (After Riley and Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

moths, it seems probable that the winter is passed by the larvae 
or pupae in the soil. The moths appear in Texas by mid-April 
and in Central Illinois in late May and early June. The yellowish 
eggs are laid on the foliage in small patches of from 8 to 20 and 
in Texas hatch in three or four days. The larvse of the first 
generations feed on weeds or alfalfa, where it is gi'own, and then 
migrate to corn and cotton or garden truck, the former crops 
being attacked when six or eight inches high. In feeding the 
caterpillars spin a fine web, which gradually envelops the plant, 
of which nothing is left but the skeletons of the leaves when the 
larvae are abundant. The larvae become full grown in about 
three weeks in summer, when they descend to the soil and pupate 



408 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



in small silken cells on or just below the surface. The moths 
emerge about eight days later, so that in midsummer the com- 
plete life cycle occupies about a month. In Texas there are 
probably five generations a year, and in Nebraska and Illinois 
three or four generations. 

Control. — The plowing of infested land in late fall or winter, 
or thorough disking of alfalfa will be found to largely control the 
pest. Where it appears on cultivated crops it may be readily 
destroyed by at once spraying or dusting with Paris green or 
arsenate of lead. The destruction of the weeds upon which it 
feeds is obviously important in preventing the undue multiplica- 
tion of the pest. 

The Rhubarb Curculio * 

Rhubarb is but little troubled with insect pests, but occasionally 
the stalks are found with nmnerous punctures from which the 




Fig. 295. — The rhubarb curculio {Lixus concavus Say): a, beetle; b, egg; 
c, newly hatched larva; d, full grown larva; e, pupa; /, back view of 
last abdominal segment of pupa — all about twice natural size. (After 
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

juice exudes. This has be(>n caused l)y the feeding and oviposi- 
tion of a large rusty-brown snout-beetle, which is usually 

♦ Lixus concavus Say. Family Curculionida. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Bulletin 23, n. s., Division of Entomology, p. 61. 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 409 

found on the affected plants. It is about three-quarters inch 
long, and will be readily recognized from Fig. 295. The beetles 
hibernate over winter and feed on dock, in the stalks of which the 
eggs are laid in May. Although eggs are laid in rhubarb, they 
fail to hatch or the young larvte die. The grubs become full 
grown by midsummer and the beetles emerge in late summer 
and feed a little before entering hibernation. 

Control. — As the beetles are sluggish and readily found, 
they may be easily destroyed by handpicking. Dock plants 
near the rhubarb patch should be pulled amd destroyed in early 
summer after the beetles have finished laying their eggs. 

The Celery or Greenhouse Leaf-tyer * 

This little caterpillar has become known as the celery leaf- 
tyer, for although it damages cabbage, beets, tobacco, lettuce, 
cauliflower, parsley, cucumber, sweet pea, and strawberry, it 
has been specially injurious to celery. It is equally well known 
as the greenhouse leaf-tyer, for it is one of the worst insect enemies 
of the florist, attacking violet, rose, chrysanthemum, carnation, 
and other greenhouse plants. On celery the larva^ both bore 
in the stems and web up the foliage upon which they feed upon 
the surface, skeletonizing the leaves. The usual method of 
feeding, to which is due the common name, is to fasten together 
two contiguous leaves, to curl over the edge of a single leaf, or 
to spin a thin silken web within which to feed. 

The moth reseml)les that of the gard(>n webworm, having a 
wing expanse of about three-quarters of an inch, the fore-wings 
being light clay-brown, suffused with reddish or ochreous brown 
and marked with blackish cross-lines as shown in the illustration, 
and the hind-wings are gray with darker margins. The full- 
grown larva is about three-quarters inch long and of a 
translucent greenish-white color. Down the middle of the back 

* Phlyctcenia rubigalis Guen. Family Pyralidae. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Bulletin 27, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin 
190, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 159. 



410 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

is a narrow green stripe, which is bordered on either side by a 
wider greenish-white stripe. The head is dark straw color, 
mottled with darker, often purpHsh dots. The species is widely 
distributed, occurring in practically all parts of the United States, 
and may be readily introduced into greenhouses upon plants. 
Life History. — The eggs are very much flattened, translucent, 
broadly oval disks about one thirty-second inch long, laid in clus- 
ters of from eight to twelve, several often overlapping. The eggs 
hatch in from five to twenty days, according to the temperature. 
The larva? feed mostly at night and become full grown in from 




Fig. 2%. — The celery leaf-tyer {Phlycloenia rubigalis Hbn.): a, moth; b, 
same in natural position at re.st; c, egg mass; d, larva from above; e, 
same from side; /, head of same; g, pupa case; h, chrysalis — one-half 
larger than natural size except c, which is twice natural size, and /, 
more enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

three to five weeks. They transform to pupse within the webs 
which they have formed between the leaves, and the moths 
emerge one or two weeks later. The number of generations 
which occur out of doors and the method of hibernation have not 
been determined, but there are probably at least three generations 
in the open, while th(! number in greenhouses will depend upon 
the temperature and the food available. 

Control. — No very thorough experiments in the practical con- 
trol of the pest on field crops seem to have been made. A thorough 
application of arsenate of lead as soon as the young larvae are 
noticed and before they have webbed the foliage badly would 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 



411 



doubtless destroy tlieiii, Init after they have Ijecome established in 
their webs, handpicking will prolialily be the only effective renied}' 
on such a crop as celery. 



The Celery Caterpillar * 

Everyone who grows celery, parsle}' or carrots is familiar with 
the large black-striped green caterpillar which feeds on their 
foliage, as it is probably the most common pest of those plants in 
all parts of the country, ragging the foliage and attacking the 
blossoms and undeveloped seeds. It is the larva of our most 







Fig. 297. — The celery caterpillar (Papilio polyxenes Fab.) : a, full grown larva, 
side view; b, front view of head showing extended osmateria; c, male 
butterfly; d, egg; e, young larva; /, suspended chrysalis — about naiural 
size except d. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

common black swallowtail butterfly, shown natural size in Fig. 
297. The wings of the male are velvety black with bands of yel- 
low spots. On the inner angle of the hind-wing is a well-marked 
eyespot, and the hind-wing terminates in a distinct 'Hail." The 
female is somewhat larger, the inner row of yellow spots is 

* Papilio polyxenes Fab. Family Papilionidoe. 



412 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

wanting, and the hind-wings are covered with pale-blue scales 
on the posterior half. There is considerable variation, however 
in the color of both sexes. 

Life History. — In the North the winter is passed in the chrjsalis 
stage and the butterflies appear in May in New England, while in 
the far South the butterflies hil)ernate over winter and appear in 
March or April. The eggs are laid on the foHage and are of globu- 
lar form, about one-twenty-fifth inch in diameter, at first 
pale honey-yellow, but later reddish-brown. The eggs hatch in 
from four to nine days. The young larvae are quite dissimilar 
from the older stages, being nearly ])lack with a white band around 
the middle of the body (Fig. 297, c). The larvse feed exclusively 
on umljelliferous plants, inclutling besides those mentioned, cara- 
way, fennel, parsnip, dill, wild carrot, wild parsnip, and other 
weeds of this famil}'. The full-grown larva is shown, natural 
size, in Fig. 297, a. It is bright green, sometimes yellowish, and 
marketl with rings and spots of velvety l)la('k as illustrated. Just 
back of the prothorax is a pair of meml)ranous yellow horns called 
osmateria, which give off a peculiar pungent odor, which is quite 
disagreeable and evidently aids in frightening away enemies. 
These osmateria are soft, retractile oi-gans, which are drawn back 
between the segments and are extrudinl only when the larva is 
disturlxnl. 

In the far South the larva will become^ gi'owu in ten da}-s, but 
in the North it i('((uii-('s lhr(>e to four weeks. Tlie caterpillar 
then attaches itself to some part of the plant by the anal prolegs, 
and fastens a strong loop of silk around the thorax, and sheds its 
slvin, leaving the chrysalis or pupa firndy attached to the leaf or 
stem as shown in Fig. 297, /. The chrysalis is a dull gray color 
marked with black and bi'own and al)Out 1^ inches long. In from 
ten days to two weeks the butterfly emerges from the chrysalis. 
Thus the complete life cycle may be passed in twenty-two days in 
the South to eight weeks in the North. In the North there arc 
but two generations a year, while in the South there are probably 
three or four. 

Control. — The cat(Mpillars are so readily seen, and if not seen 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 



413 



they soon reveal their presence by the pecuUar odor when dis- 
turbed, that they may usually be picked off and crushed, and so 
rarely become sufficiently numerous to warrant other treatment. 
They may be readily conti'ollcd liy spraying or dustinj;- with 
arsenicals. 

The Celery Looper * 

This species is very closely ivlated to the cabbage looper (page 
361) and occurs throughout the Northern States east of the Rocky 
Mountains. According to Forbes and Hart it is more common 
than the cabbage looper in Illinois, where it is a sei'ious pest of 
celery and has been reared on sugar-beet, Init elsewlierc it is not 
as common. 

The moth has a wing expanse of about two inches, the fore- 
wings l)eing purplish brown with darker shades of velvety bi'own 




Fig. 298. — The celery looper (Plusia mnplex Cluen.): male moth and larva — 
somewhat enlarged. (After ('hlttenden, IJ. S. Dept. Agr.) 

and with a prominent silvery white discal spot, while the hind- 
wings are yellowish, strongly banded with dark fuscous. The 
caterpillar or larva is similar to that of the cabbage looper, l)ut the 
spiracles are surrounded with black rings, while in the cabbage 
looper these rings are indistinct or wanting. 

Forbes and Hart l^elieve that there are three ]:)roods in a year. 
" The caterpillars of the first generation of the year hatcli late in 
May and get their growth late in June or early in July. The life 
of the second generation extends from the first part of July to the 

* Plima simplex Guen. Family N^octuidae. See Chittenden, Build in S'.i, 
Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 73. 



414 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

middle of September, and the third begins to issue from the egg 
early in October. Tliis l)i-ood hiljernates about half grown, attain- 
ing full size during the latter part of April." 

Control. — Xo accounts of ex])(H'iments in control are on record, 
but doubtless the same lueasui'es as used against the cabbage 
looper will be found applicable. 



The Carrot-beetle * 

The carrot-l)eetle is a natixc species which has been particu- 
larly injurious to carrots along the Atlantic Coast from Long 
Island through the Gulf States. The species occurs, however, 
very generally throughout the country as far north as central 
Indiana, and on the Pacific coast. It has a consideiable number 

of food-plants; in Louisiana 
and Mississippi it has injured 
the corn crop, the ])eetles cut- 
ting the corn just al)()ve the 
roots; in Illinois tiie beetles 
injured sunflowei's and sweet 
potato(\s; in Indiana they at- 
tack(Hl carrots, celery and par- 
snips; in Texas they have 
injured potatoes and shrul^s 
and vegetables of various 
kinds; and in Nebraska they 
have damaged sugar-beets. 

The damage is done entirely 
by the adult l)eetles, which are 
among the smaller of the May- 
beetles or June-bugs, measure 
one-half to five-eighths of an inch long, and are from reddish 
brown to nearly black in color. The beetles gouge into the roots 
or stems just below the surface of the soil, often ruining the root 
for market without injuring the top. The injury may occur by 

* Ligyrus gibbosus Dej. Family Scar aboei doe. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Bulletin 33, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 32. 




Fig. 299. — The carrot-beetle {Liyyrus 
gibboaus Dej.) — much enlarged. 
(After Forbes.) 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 415 

hibernated beetles in the spring from April to June or by newly 
transformed individuals in late summer or autumn. 

The life history has not been studied, but is probably very 
similar to that of Lachnosterna (page 79) . 

Control. — No very satisfactory means of control have been 
tried in a practical way. It is stated that lime scattered over 
infested fields has driven the beetles away. It is evident that 
after the crop is gathered, infested fields should be pastured with 
hogs, if possible, or plowed deeply, and plowed again in the spring. 
Evidently further study of the habits of the pest is necessary before 
satisfactorv means of control mav be devised. 



The Carrot Rust-fly * 

The CaiTot Rust-fi}" is a European species, being a serious 
})est of carrots in England and (iermany, which has been known 
in Canada since iSSo and appear(>d in Xew York in 1!)()1 and since 
then in New Hampshire. The larva or maggot which does the 
injury very much resembles the cheese maggot or skipper in^-en- 
eral appearance, is a rather dark brown, and a little less than one- 
third inch long. The jDarent fly is about one-sixth inch long 
with a wing expanse of three-tenths inch, and is a dai'k blackisji- 
green color, sparsely clothed with yellow hairs, and with pale 
yellow head and legs, except the eyes, which are black. 

" Attack on carrots is not difficult of recognition. The leaves 
of the young plants early in the spring turn reddish, and the roots 
are found to be blotched with rusty jaatches, particularly toward 
their tips. The roots when stored for winter, although not always 
manifesting any degree of injur}' on the outer surface, may at 
times be perforated in all directions by dirty brownish burrows, 
f]-om which the whitish or }-ellowish larva3 may be found some- 
times projecting." Celery is also attacked, the larvae eating the 
thick part of the root when it is half grown, stunting the plant so 
as to make it worthiest; for market. The life history of the species 

* Psila rosoe Fab. See Chittenden, Bulletin 33, n. s.. Division of Ento- 
mology, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 26. 



416 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

does not seem to have been can^fuUy ol)served, Ijut from analogy 
is probably somewhat similar to that of the cabbage root-maggot, 
except that the maggots of the carrot rust-fly develop and trans- 
form on carrots in storage if the temperatures be sufficient. 

Control. — Late sowing has bcnni practiced to advantage, and 
the rotation of crops is of obvious importance, as is the deep plow- 
ing of infested land. Where carrots have been stored in earth, this 
earth into which the larva3 have entered and pupated should be 




Fi(i. .■)()(). — TIk! carrot r\ist-(ly (I'siln rusac Fab.): o\ male Hy; 9, female fly, 
side view; a, aiitciiiiu of male; />, full-grown larva from .sitlo; r, spiracles 
of same; a, anal exlremity from the end; c, puparium; /, young larva; 
(7, anal segnienf from the side — eight times natural size except a, c, d, g, 
more enhirged. (After ( 'hittenden, U. S. Depl. Agr.) 



treated, either by buryiii.ii it deeply, spreadinu il out in thin layers 
on the surface^ or throwing it into pools where it will be frozen. 
Kerosene emulsion, 1 part stock solution to 10 of water spi-ayed 
along the rows while the carrots ar(> young, oi- sand, land plaster 
or ashes, to 3 gallons of which 1 pint of kerosene has been added, 
sprinkled along the rows, have been of some \alue in Canada. 
These should be applied three or four times, once a \\-eek after the 
roots begin to form, and particularly after the rows have been 
thinned. 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 



417 



The Parsnip Webworm * 

The Parsnip Webworm is quite a common pest of the forming 
seed of the parsnip, but foi-tunately it seems to prefer wihl carrot 
as a breeding phint. It is an imported species, occurring in north- 
ern Europ;% which was fii'st oliserved in this country in 1S73 and 
since then has become genei-ally (Ustril)uted ovei- the Northern 
States and Canada westward to the Mississij^pi. 

The motli is a gi'ayish-l)uff or pale ochreous coloi-, mai-ked with 
fuscous, the wings expanding about thi'('('-((uartei's of an incli. 
The hii'va is a pale yellowish, greenish or bluish-gi-ay, with con- 




FiG. 301. — The parsnip webworm (Depressaria heradiana De G.): n, moth; 
h, c, larviE; d, pupa; e, anal extremity of pupa; /, umbel of parsnip 
webbed together by the larvae — natural size. (After Riley.) 

spicuous black tubercles, the head and prothoracic shield Ijlack, 
and is about half an inch long when grown. Th(^ larvae web the 
flower-heads together until they are contracted into masses of 
web and excrement as shown in the illustration. " After the 
larvae have consumed the flowers and unripe seeds and liecome 
nearly full grown, they enter the hollow stems of the plant by bur- 
rowing their way inside, generally at the axils of the leaves, and 
then feed upon the soft, white lining of the interior. Here, inside 
the hollow stem, they change to the pupa state. The larvae are 

* Depressaria heradiana DeG. Family (Ecophoridce. See C. V. Riley, 
" Insect Life," Vol. I, p. 94. 



418 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

moderately gregarious. They will sometimes eat newly sow'n 
parsnip after the older plants oi'iginally attacked have been 
destroyed, in such cases eating the tender green leaves, while of the 
older plants they eat only the flower-heads and interior lining of 
the stems." The moths appear in late July and early August. 

Control. — Thorough spraying or dusting with arsenicals will 
destroy the caterpillars, according to Chittenden. If the flowers 
are destroyed before they are noticed, cut off and burn all infested 
stems before the moths emerge fi'om the pupae. Obviously it will 
be important to avoid planting parsnips in or near waste places 
which have grown up in wild carrot. 

The Onion Thrips * 

The small 3'ellowish " thrips " which chafe the epidermis from 
the green leaves, causing them to dr}- out, whiten and die, have 
become well known to onion growers in practically all parts of the 
United States where onions are raised extensively. It is a Euro- 
pean insect, occurring in Germany and Russia, and has also been 
imported into the Bermudas. 

The adult thrips is about one-twenty-fifth of an inch long, of a 
pale yellow color, tinged with blackish. The general appearance, 
much enlarged, is shown in Fig. 302. The slender, elongate ])ody 
bears two pairs of narrow, bristle-like wings which are of no value 
for flight. The fore-wing contains two wing-veins, and the hind- 
wing but one, the posterior margin of both bearing a fringe of long 
hairs. When at rest the wings lie together along the back. 

The thrips belong to a quite distinct order of insects, the 
Thi/sunoptera (or Physapodu), species of which are commonly 
found in the flowers of the rose and clover. The mouth-parts are 
quite different from those of any other order of insects, being 
intermediate between those of ))iting and sucking insects, the 

* TJtrips Uihaci Lind. Order TIn/sanoptera. See Quaintance, A. L., 
Bulletin 46, Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta., " Tlie Strawlieny Thrips and the Onion 
Thrips." Full account and BihliograpJiy; Pergande, Th., " Insect Life," 
Vol. VII, pp. 2!»2-295; Osborne-Mally, Bulletin 27, Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta., 
pp. 137-142; Sirrine, Bulletin S3, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., pp. 680-683. 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 419 

mandibles being reduced to bristle-like structures. Their man- 
ner of feeding does not seem to be clearly understood, though 
Professor Quaintance states that the onion thrips frequently 
rasps off and swallows pieces of leaf tissue. However, they are 
able to destroy the surface tissue of the leaf so that it wilts, 
and fields badly affected become ))lighted and white. 

This species has quite a list of food-plants, cabbage and cauli- 
flower often being considerably injured. Among them may be 




F'iG. 302. — The onion thrips {Thrips tabaci Lind.)— very greatly enlarged. 
(Photo by Quaintance.) 

mentioned turnip, kale, sweet clover, squash, cucumber, melon, 
parsley, tomato, and several common garden flowers and weeds. 

Life History. — The eggs are slightly less than Vioo of an inch 
long— too small to be visible to the unaided eye — elongate, and 
curved somewhat kidney-shaped. They are laid singly just 
beneath the surface of the leaf and hatch in about four days. 
The young nymphs resemble the adults in shape, but are at 
first almost transparent in color and then a greenish-yellow. 
They are frequently found feeding in small groups. Both the 



420 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

young and adults have a pair of sharp spines at the tip of the 
abdomen whicli they use to (h'ive away enemies by striking them 
quickly I'ight and left. Two or three days after birth the skin is 
shed and another molt occurs five or six days later. With the 
third stag(> tlu^ wing-pads appear. This stage lasts four days^ 
and during it the insects take no food and remain almost quiet, 
moving witli difficulty. On onions the nymphs have been found 
mostly on tlie ludbs in the loose soil. With the next molt, the 
insect b(M'omes matui'e and winged. Thus, the total life C3'cle as 
observed liy Professor (^uaintance in Floiida is about sixteen days. 
In Russia Dr. Lindeman found tiiat a generation required forty- 
seven days. " In Flori(hi there ai'e probably no distinct broods, 
as all stages may be found at the same time. Allowing for the life 
cycle at sixtcnni (hxys, a large number of broods could occur during 
the year, but unfavorable conditions keep them reduced, except 
during the s})ring and periuii)s eai'ly summei' (the worst injury 
occurring in May and June), so that it will pi'oljably not happen 
that they will develop throughout a year according to their capa- 
bihties." 

Control. — The pest may l)e successfully controlled by spraying 
with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 2 gallons of water, rose-leaf insec- 
ticide, 1 pint to 4 gallons of water, or kerosene emulsion diluted 
S to 10 times. Tobacco decoction (see page 55) will prol:)ably 
prove equally effective, using it as strong as necessary. Probably 
1 pound of stems to 2 gallons of water will be satisfactory. The 
spraying should be done very thoroughly so as to reach the insects 
in the axils of the leaves, and th(> soil around the plant also should 
he well wet to destroy the mature nymj)hs tluit may l)e hiding. 

The Imported Onion-maggot * 

T\\2 common white maggot which bores into the roots and 

l)ulbs causing them to wilt and decay, is probably the mo^. 

important insect pest of the onion. The present species is by far 

the most commonly injurious and is termed " imported " because 

* Pegomyia ceparum Bouch^. Family Anthomyiidce. See same references 
as for cabbage-maggot, footnote, page 347. 




Y^o 303— T/^c imported onion-maggot {Pegomijia ceparum Bouche): a, 

"adult; b, maggot; c, puparium; d, anal segment of maggot showing 

spiracles; e, head with mouth-parts— all very much enlarged, J and g 

show injury to young onions, (After J. B. Smith.) 



421 



422 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

it was early known as a pest in Pkirope and was imported into 
tliis country probably in colonial times. 

These maggots are the offspring of small flies, somewhat 
resembling small houseflies and very similar to those of the cabbage 
root-maggot (see page 347).* The wings expand about three- 
eighths of an inch and the body is half that long. The male is 
gray with black bristles and hairs, the face is white with black 
hairs, there are three black lines between the wings, and the abdo- 
men bears a row of black spots along the middle. The female is a 
little larger, inclined to dark yellowish, and with a yellowish face. 

Life History. — The flies appear 'n the spring by the time 3'oung 
onions are up and the eggs are deposited in the sheath and in the 
axils of the leaves, from two to six being placed upon a plant. The 
eggs are just perceptible to the eye, white, oval, and about one- 
tAventy-fifth of an inch long. The young maggot works its way 
dowTi from the sheath to the root, upon which it feeds until it is 
consumed, only the outer skin remaining, and often cuts off the 
plant completely. Another plant is then attacked and often sev- 
eral young plants are consumed before the maggot is full grown. 
Later in the season the maggots bore into the bulbs, a number of 
maggots usually being found in a single bulb and their presence 
being indicated by a slimy mass of soil at the entrance of the 
cavity. If such bulbs are not killed outright, they usually rot in 
storage. The first presence of the pest is indicated by the wilt- 
ing of the young plants, and by the central leaves of the older 
plants yellowing and dying. 

The maggots becom9 full grown about two weeks after hatch- 
ing and are then about three-eighths of an inch long. They are 
dull white, with the jaws appearing beneath the skin as a short 
black stripe at the pointed end of the body. The posterior end of 
the body is obtuse and is cut off obliquely, the margin of the last 
segment bearing a number of tubercles by which this species may 
bo distinguished fi'om the cabbage-root maggot. (See Slinger- 
land, 1. c). 

* See Slingerland, Bulleliii 7S, Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 4U5, for characters 
distinguishing these two species. 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 423 

The outer skin of the maggot now becomes hardened and 
within it the insect transforms to the pupa, which remains in the 
soil at the base of the plant for about two weeks, when the adult 
fly emerges. Two or three generations probably occur in the 
Northern States. Professor R. H. Pottit states that some of the 
flies hibernate while many of the pupae remain in the soil over 
winter and the flies issue from them in the spring. This com- 
plicates remedial measures. 

Control. — Liberal applications of commercial fertilizers such as 
nitrate of soda, which will assist to rapid growth, are of great value 
in overcoming injury by all root-feeding pests. Thorough culture 
is of value. Rotation of the onion plot to a point far distant 
from that of the previous year, the cleaning up of okl l)eds, and 
plowing them deeply in the fall, will aid in the control. Pull up 
and destroy the young plants affected as soon as noticed, being 
careful to dig up the maggots with the roots. The application of 
carbolic emulsion as for the cabbage-root maggot has been advo- 
cated and will doubtless lessen the injury by repelling the adult 
flies. Concerning it see page 354. Apply early in the season and 
at intervals of a week. 

The Barred-winged Onion-maggot * 

The adult flies of this species may frequently be found upon 
corn and are readily recognized by the banded wings. They are 
similar in size to the last species, but the back is metallic blue-green 
except the head, which is mostly hoary, with brownish-black eyes. 
The maggots have been recorded as injurious to corn and sugar- 
cane and have been recently noted in Michigan associated with 
the common onion-maggot, destroying onions. f The maggots 
are similar to the onion-maggot but the posterior end is more 
rounded and may be distinguished from the illustrations. The 
winter is passed in the puparium as far as observed. 

Remedies. — In addition to the measures advocated for the last 

* Chaetopsis oenea Wied. Family Anthomyidoe. 

t See Pettit, Bulletin 200, Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 206. 



424 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

species, the destruction of the affected onions aixl tlie thorough 
plowing of affected land in the fall is of prime importance. Stored 




a^ 



Fic. ;i04. — The barred-winged onion-maggot {('halopsis oenea Wied.): a, 
larva, with spiracular opening highly magnified at left; 6, puparium; 
c, adult fly — all enlarged. (After Riley and^Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

onions which prove infested may be fumigated with carbon bisul- 
fide to destroy the maggots and puparia and prevent the emergence 
of the adults. 

The Asparagus-beetle * 

This is a well-known pest of asparagus in Europe and was first 
observed in Queens County, New York, in ISG'i, where it threatened 
to destroy the asparagus, one of the most valued crops of the Long 
Island truckers. Since then it has gradually spread northward to 
southern New Hampshire^, south to North Carolina, and west to 
Illinois and Wisconsin, and has been found at two points in Cali- 
fornia. There seems no reason why it should not spread to 
wherever asparagus is grown, at least in the Northern States. 

The beetle is a handsome little crcniture about one-quarter 
inch long, blue-black in coloi', witii red thorax, and dark blue 
wing-covers, marked with lemon-yellow and with reddish borders. 
The markings of the wing-covers are quite variable, the light color 

* Crioceris nf^paragi Linn. Family Chrysomelida'. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Yearl)Ook, U. S. Dept. Agr., lS9t). p. 341; Bulletin 66, Bureau of Ent., pp. 
6, 1)3, and Circular 102, Ibid. 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 



425 



sometimes forming submargiiial spots, while in other specimens it 
becomes so diffused as to form the principal color of the wing- 
covers. 

Both adults and larvte feed upon the tender asparagus shoots 
in the spring and later attack the fruiting plants. Their attacks 
render the shoots unfit for market and in many cases their injury 
has been so severe as to make it extremely difficult to estal)lish 
new beds. 

Life History. — The beetles hibernate over winter under what- 
ever rubbish or shelter may be available near the asparagus patch. 




Fig. 305. — The asparagus-beetle (Crioceris uaparcuji Linn.): eggs, larva, and 
beetle — all much enlarged. (Photo.s by W. E. Britton.) 

About the season that cutting asparagus for market commences 
they appear and lay the eggs for the first new brood. The egg is 
dark brown, oval, nearly one-sixteenth of an inch long and is laid 
on end. The eggs are deposited upon the stems or foliage, usually 
two to seven or more in a row. They hatch in from three to eight 
days. The young larvae at once commence to attack the tender 
shoots, and later in the season feed upon the foliage. They become 
full grown in from ten days to two weeks. The full grown larva, as 
shown in the illustration, is about one-third of an inch long, soft 



426 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

and fleshy, much wrinkled, and of a dark gray or olive color, 
with black head and legs. The mature larva drops to the ground 
and just beneath the surface forms a little rounded earth-covered 
cocoon within which it changes to the pupa, from which the 
beetle emerges in about a week. Thus the complete life cycle 
may be passed in a minimum of three weeks at Washington, D. C, 
where there are possibly four generations in a year, Avhilc further 
north, six or seven weeks may be required for the life cycle, and 
there are probably only two generations. 

The asparagus-beetles are held in check by several natural 
agencies. Several species of ladybird-beetles feed upon the eggs, 
while numerous soldier-bugs attack the larvae which they impale 
on their stout beaks. The adult beetles are often killed by low 
tempei-ature in the winter, which doubtless limits their northern 
spread, while the eggs antl larvae arc sometimes killed by the intense 
heat of summer, which will also probably limits the southern 
spread of the species. 

Control. — One of the best means of control is to keep all shoots 
cut down in the spring so as to force the beetles to lay their eggs 
on the young shoots, which are cut for market every few days 
before the eggs have hatched, and hence no larvie are allowed 
to hatch. 

Another method which has proven effective is to cut down all 
the seed stcMus but a few rows liere and thei'e, so that the beetles 
will concentrate upon them, and then poison these thoroughly 
with arsenicals, or they may be cut down and burned and other 
rows allowed to grow as traps. 

Air-slaked lime dusted on the plants in the morning while the 
dew is on will destroy the soft-bodied larvie very effectively. 
Another way to destroy the larva> in hot weather is to simph* brush 
them from the plants so that they will drop on the hot soil. As 
they craAvl ))ut slowly few will ivgain the plants, particularly if the 
brushing be followed with a cultivator. 

Probably the most effective means of controlling this pest, 
which was formerly a very difficult one to comba,t, is spraying with 
arsenate of lead. Use 3 pounds to 50 gallons, to which 3 pounds 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 



427 



of resin soap should be added to render it more adhesive, although 
good results have been secured without the sticker. Such spraying 
should be given as soon as cutting is over and should be repeated 
once or twice at intervals of ten days. Where the young shoots 
are kept closely cut and the bed is then sprayed, there should be no 
trouble to control the pest, and young beds should be kept thor- 
oughly sprayed with arsenate of lead from the time the beetles 
appear until danger from injury is over. 

The Twelve-spotted Asparagus-beetle * 

The Twelve-spotted Asparagus Beetle is also of European 
origin, having been first introduced into this country near 
Baltimore, Md., in 1881. Since then it has become almost as 
widely distributed as the previous species. 

The beetles may be distinguished from the last species by the 
broader wing-covers, each of which is orange-red , marked with six 




Fig. 306.— The twelve-spotted asparagus-beetle {Crioceris V2-punctata Linn.): 
a, beetle; b, larva; c, second abdominal segment of larva; d, same of 
c, asparagi—a, b, enlarged; c, d, more enlarged. (After Chittenden, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

black spots. The chief injury by this species is by the beetles 
which emerge from hibernation feeding on the young shoots. 
Later generations attack the foliage, Ijut the larvae seem to prefer 
to feed upon the ripening berries. The larva is of the same gen- 

* Crioceris 12-punctata Linn. See F. H. Chittenden, I.e. 



428 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

era! appearance as that of the preceding species, but ma}' be dis- 
tinguished by its orange color. The eggs are laid singly, and are 
attached on the sides instead of on end. They are deposited 
mostly on old plants toward the ends of the shoots which bear 
ripening berries lower down. Soon after a larva hatches it finds its 
way to a berry and feeds upon its ripening pulp, from which it 
migrates to another, feeding upon several, perhaps, before full 
growth is obtained, when it drops to the ground and pupates like 
the last species. The life cycle is essentially the same and there 
are probably the same number of generations. 

Control. — The remedies advocated for the previous species 
will be found satisfactory except those which arc directed against 
the larva3, as the habit of the larva of concealing itself in the berry 
would make the application of inscM-ticides to the seedstalks of 
little use. 

The Asparagus Miner * 

Occasionally injury l)y the snudl white maggots of a fly have 
been observed in the asparagus l)eds of Long Island, California, 
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and District of Columbia, but the 
damage seems rarely to be very serious. The adult is a small black 
fly al)out one-sixth of an inch long and is usually found on the 
flowers of the asparagus, and occurs from New England to Ten- 
nessee. Tli{\se flies emerge early in June. The exact manner of 
egg-laying has not l)een ol)served, l)ut the young maggots are found 
mining just beneath the surface of the stalks, especially young 
stalks. The nuiggots are about one-fifth an inch long, pure 
white, except the black rasping hooks which j^roject from the head. 
When full grown the maggots change to puparia beneath the epi- 
dermis. The next brood of adult flies emerge early in August. 
A second brood of maggots seems to occur and the puparia of the 
second brood pass the winter, and from tliem come the flies early 
the next sunmier. 

* Agromyza simplex Loew. Family Agromyzidce. See Sirrine, Bulletin 
189, N. Y. Agr. I<:xp. Sta.; Chittenden, Bulletin 66, Part I, Bureau of Ento- 
mology, pp. 1 and 5, Fig. 2. 



MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN INSECTS 



429 



Injury from the mining of the maggots has been most serious 
on seedling and newly set b(^ds, though it may occur on cutting 
beds, being apparent by the plants turning yellow and dying much 
earlier than they naturally do. 

Pullinii; the old stalks and burning thom in late summer seems 





Fig. 307. — The asparagus miner {Agrornyza simplex Loew): at left, side view 
of fiy; a, larva; b, thoracic spiracles; c, anal spiracles; d, puparium from 
side; e, same from above; /, section of asparagus stalk showing injury 
and location of puparia on detached section — a, e, much enlarged; /, 
slightly reduced. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

to be the best means for controlling the pest from our present 
knowledge of it, which, however, is still rather meager. Dr. 
Chittenden has suggested that hitting a few stalks grow as a trap- 
crop to which the flies might l)e lured, and then destroying these 
stalks, might protect the cutting beds. 



CHAPTER XXI 
INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO * 

The Sweet-potato Flea-beetle f 

As soon as the sweet-potato plants are set out they are often 
attacked by hordes of hungry little brownish flea- beetles. Small 
channels are eaten out of both surfaces of the leaf in a very char- 
acteristic manner, quite different from the woi'k of other flea- 
beetles (Fig. 309) , and often the whole surface is seared but never 
punctured. As a result many of the leaves of the seedling are 





Fig. 308. — The sweet-potato flea-beetle (Choetocnema confinis Lee): adult 
and larva — much enlarged. (After J. B. Smith.) 

killed outright, turn brown, and decay, while new leaves put 
out from below, thus checking the growth. These attacks have 
been found to be worst on low land and that previously in sweet 
potatoes, and are always first noticed near fence rows or woodland 
where the beetles have hibernated. The beetle is bronzed or 

*See Sanderson, Bulletin 59, Md. Agr. Exp. Sta.; J. B. Smith, Bulletin 
229, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

t Choetocnema confinis Lee. Family Chriisomelidoe. See Smith, 1. c., p. 4. 

430 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO 431 

brassy-brown, about one-sixteenth inch long, thick set, and the 
wing-covers when seen under a lens are deeply striated. 

Life History. — The beetles hibernate over winter in rubbish, 
under logs, leaves or other vegetation, and emerge early in May. 
They mate as soon as they have fed a little, and disappear by the 
middle of June in New Jersey. But little is known of the early 
stages of the insect and they have never been found on sweet- 
potato plants. The larvae have been found, however, feeding on 
the roots of bindweed. The larva (Fig. 308) is a slender, white 
grub, about one-eighth inch long, and feeds externally upon 




Fig. 309. — Sweet-potato leaves injured by the sweet-potato flea-beetle. (After 

J. B. Smith.) 

the smaller roots. The beetles appear again in August, but do 
not as a rule feed on sweet potatoes, preferring bindweeds and 
wild morning-glories, from which they disappear in late September. 
Control. By dipping the plants in arsenate of lead 1 pound to 
10 gallons of water, as they are being set, they will be protected 
and any beetles feeding on them will be killed. The plants should 
be allowed to dry slightly before being set. Dipping the plants 
is much better than spraying them later, as it is practically 
impossible to completely cover the plant by spraying, as may be 
done in dipping, which is much quicker and less expensive. Late- 



132 INSECT PESTS OF FARINI, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

planted sweet potatoes are mueli less seriously injured, as the 
beetles will seek out their wild food-plants and ))econie established 
upon theni, so that late planting may be resorted to wh(>n neces- 
sary or more convenient. Well grown, stocky plants will better 
withstand injury, and liberal fertilization will enable them to make 
a quick growth even if slightly checlaul. 

Tortoise-beetles or Gold-bugs * 

Of all the insects affecting the sweet potato, the brilliant, little 
golden beetles which form one tribe (CV/.s.s/r/a') of the large family 
of leaf-beetles, are the most connnon and are quite peculiar to it. 
They are l)eautiful insects, some of the species appearing like drops 
of molt(Mi gold, which has given them the name of " gold-bugs," 
while (he l)road expansion of the thorax ;uid wing-covers gives 
them a fancied resemblance to a tortoise; hence the name " tortoise- 
beetles." The s})(>cies affecting the sweet potato are classed in 
three diffei-ent genera, l)ut are sufficient 1\- alike in tlieir genei-al 
habits and life history to be treatetl together. 

Life Hislorij. — Tlu> beetles hibernat(> over winter and in the 
spring befoi'(> the s\\-eet-})otato plants are set they feed on their 
native food-plant, the morning glory. As soon as the plants are 
set out, the beetles ('onnnence to eat laige roimd holes in the leaves, 
and so riddle them that many must often be leplanted. The worst 
damage, however, is done to the set on which the eggs are laid. 
Rarely are the new shoots seriously eaten or are eggs laid upon 
them. The larva3 hatch during the first half of June in Maryland, 
and require slightly over two weeks to become full grown. Though 
the larva? do considerable damage by eating the foliage, it is not 
nearly as s(M'ious as that done by the beetles. The larva? are almost 
as disagreeable as th(> adult l^eetles are attractive, but are never- 
theless veiy intxM'esting creatures. ICach of them is provided with 
a tail-lik(,' fork at the end of the botly which is almost as long as 
the body, and in those species in which it is depressed, entirely 

* P'amily Cfirysomclidoc. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO 



433 



conceals the insect. Upon this fork is heaped the excrement and 
cast skins of the larva, and w en covered by this '' umbrella " it is 
with great difficulty that the larva is distinguished from a bit of 
mud or a bird-dropping. The manner in which this fork increases 
with the size of the larva is rather interesting. At each molt, the 
fa'ci-fork of tiie last stage is lu^ld upon the new fa^ci-foi-k, and in 
this wa}' those of the different stages are telescoped, tlic one inside 
the other, and the stage of growth of the larva may be reatlily 
determined by the number of cast skins held on the foi'k. From 
the likeness of this l)urden to a pack, the larvae are often known 
as " peddlers." In order to more firmly bind the excrement and 
cast skins to tiie fork, the larvae fasten them together by a fin(> 
network of silken threads, which are attached to the spines at the 
sides of the body. When fully grown the larva fastens itself to a 
leaf, its skin splits open along the back, and from it comes the 
pupa, which is held to the leaf by its caudal fork, which is securely 
encased in the fteci-fork of the larval skin. Al:)out a week later 
the adult ]:)eetle emerges, eats for a few days and then disappears 
from the sweet-potato patch until the following spring, doubtless 
feeding on morning glory until it enters hil^ernation. 

The Two-Striped Sweet-potato Beetle * 

This is usually the most common of the tortoise beetles attack- 
ing sweet potatoes. The beetle is pale or brownish-yellow, 




Fig. 310. — The two-striped sweet-potato beetle (Cassida hwitlala Say): 1, 
larvae on leaf; 2, larva; 3, pupa; 4, beetle — all enlarged. (After Riley.) 



striped with black as shown in Fig. 310, and the larva is yellowish- 
white, with a longitudinal band along the back, on either side of 
* Cassida birittata Say. Family Chrysomelid<r. 



434 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

which is a much lighter band. This species differs from the others 
in that the larva does not use its fseci-fork for carrying excrement, 
but merely covers it with cast skins and holds it at an angle from 
the body, instead of close over the back. 

The Black-legged Tortoise-beetle * 

This species very closely resembles the following one, the gol- 
den tortoise-beetle, but it is not so brilliant, is larger, has black 
legs, and the three black spots on each wing-cover are larger and 
more conspicuous. The larva is a bright straw-yellow, with two 
crescent-shaped black marks just back of the head and with the 
spines at the side of the body tipped with black. It is considerably 
larger than the larvae of the other species and may be easily 



vi 



if; 



%i'/i 




Fig. 311. — The black-legged tortoise-beetle. {Cassida nigripes Oliv.): a, b, 
larvae; c, pupa; d, beetle. (After Riley.) Eggs at left — all enlarged. 

recognized by the characteristic way in which the dung is spread 
on the fseci-fork (Fig. 311, a). The larvsc of this species also do 
more injury than the others, though possibl;;s*not as common. 
The eggs of the other species are laid singly, so that only one or 
two larva? will be found on a plant, or if more occur they are scat- 
tered, but the eggs of this species are laid in rows of from three to 
a dozen, and upon hatching the larvae feed together, thus making 
the injury more noticeable. 



* Cassida nigripes Oliv. l"'aniily Clirj/somelidae. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO 



435 



The Golden Tortoise-beetle * 

This is a very common species and may be found on morning- 
glor,y vines throughout the summer. The beetles upon first 
emerging are a dull orange color with three prominent black dots 
on each wing-cover, but a little later they change to a metallic gold, 
shining like the most brilliant tinsel, and the black spots are less 
noticeable. All of the tortoise-beetles, and this species in particu- 
lar, have the habit of dropping quckly to the ground and feigning 
death when disturbed. The eggs are quite different from those of 
other species, having three spiny prongs projecting from the pos- 




b V / 




Fig. 312. — The golden tortoise-beetle {Coplocyda bicolor Fab.): a, b, larvs; 
c, pupa; d, beetle; egg at right — all enlarged. (After Riley). 



terior margin (Fig. 312) . The larva is easily distinguished by being 
nearly concealed by the heavy load of excrement which is tri-lobed 
in outline. Though usually of a dark-brown color wnth a paler 
shade along the middle of the Imck, when the fieci-fork is raised 
the light color extends over the entire vipper side. The pupa, with 
the loaded fork still held close to the back, is hardly distinguishable 
from the larva at first glance, but if the fork is removed it may be 
distinguished from nearly releated pupae by the three dark stripes 
on the prothorax and similar m-arkings over the abdomen. 



* Coptocycla bicolor Fab. Family Chrysomelidce. 



436 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Mottled Tortoise-beetle * 

This beetle is strikingly different from the other species in 
])eing black, marked with six irregular golden spots, and with a 
band of black extending across the shoulders to the edge of the 
transparent margin of the wing-covers. The larva is a pale 
straw-yellow color during the first four stages when it carries 
excrement on the faeci-fork in a peculiar branched shape much 
like that of the black-legged tortoise-beetle larva, but after the 
last moult the color changes to a pea green, and all the excrement 
is removed from the fa^ci-fork, which makes the larva very 
difficult to recognize on a green leaf. Inasmuch as the larva 
does not feed and remains entirely motionless during this last 
stage, this change of color is very evidently of protective value. 
The pupa is also a bright green, marked only by a black ring 
aroimd each of the first pair of abdominal spii-acles. 

The Argus Tortoise-beetle t 

This is the largest of the tortoise-beetles found on sweet 
potato, though not as common as the preceding, and is also 
injurious to raspberry and horseradish, and it feeds on milk- 





Fig. 313. — The argus tortoise-beetle {Chelymorpha argus I.irhl.): a, beetle; 
b, eggs; c, larva — all enlarged. 

weeds and species of Convolvulus. The beetles are usually a brick- 
red color, with six black dots on the prothorax and six on each 
wing-cover, but they are exceedingly variable in siz(> and color, 

* Coptocycln signifera Herbst. Family Chrysomelidw. 
•j- Chelymorpha argus Licht. Family Chrysomelidoe. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE SWEET POTATO 437 

even from the same lot of eggs. The expansion of the margins 
of the wing-covers and prothorax found in the other tortoise- 
beetles is almost lacking. The eggs are laid in a bunch, each 
supported by a long stalk or pedicle. When the larvae hatch 
they huddle together on the leaves and very I'apidly defoliate a 
plant. When full grown a larva is about one-half inch long with 
the fseci-fork half as long again, slightly convex above, of a dirty 
yellowish color marked with numerous dark-brown tubercles 
and prominent lateral spines as shown in Fig. 313. The larva 
usually stands with the caudal segments elevated and the fseci- 
fork slanting backward. The pupa is of a yellowish color, 
marked with dark brown, which becomes almost black. The 
ground color of the pupa is almost concealed by a bluish bloom 
or waxy excretion resembling mold. 

Control. — From the similarity of their life history and habits 
all of these species may be treated at once. As the beetles do the 
most injur}- just after the plants are set, they should be dipped 
in arsenate of lead when setting, as advised for the flea-beetle. 
If this has not been done or if the beetles are injurious in the 
forcing bed, the plants should be thoroughly sprayed with 
arsenate of lead, 3 pounds per barrel, or Paris green, ^ pound per 
barrel with ^ pound of freshly slaked lime. 

Saw-flies * 

In 188G, Dr. C. V. Riley described the injury and various 
stages of a saw-fly, f the larvse of which had practically ruined a 
crop of sweet potatoes at Ocean Springs, Miss. The pest was 
somewhat injurious for the next two years, but since then has 
not been specially injurious, though adult flies have been noticed 
on sweet-potato and morning-glory vines in Nebraska. Doubt- 
less its control is due to the effective work of parasites which 
were reared by Dr. Riley from the larvae, and which probably 
prevent the undue increase of the species. 

* Family Tenthredinidae. 
t Schizocerus ebenus Norton. 



438 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The larvie of another insect of the same genus * was reported 
as seriously injuring the crop in Accomac County, A'irginia, in 
1891. Concerning this injury the grower, C. W. Stockley, wrote, 
" Last year (1890) was the first time they made their appearance 
in my potato patch. They came the first of July and deposited 
their eggs on the leaves; when the eggs hatched these worms 
would eat the leaves to a comb. This continued for aVjout four 
weeks. The potatoes where the fly was did not make any }ield 
at all. This year the fly made its appearance the same time as 
it did last year." Since then no injury has been reported by 
this species, though the adults are occasionally seen. 

Control.— An arsenical spray as advised for the tortoise-beetles 
will be found effective for destroying the saw-fly larvic and 
should be applied as soon as the injury is noticed, or preferably 
just as the eggs are hatching. 

The Sweet-potato Root-borer f 

Since 1890 sweet potatoes have been seriously injured in parts 
of Texas and Louisiana by a small white grub which bores into the 
stems and tubers both in the field and in storage, but strangely 
it has not spread elsewhere in this country. In Texas the worst 
injury has been in Calhoun and neighboring counties along the 
Gulf Coast where extensive growing of sweet potatoes has been 
abandoned on account of the pest. During recent years it has 
spread to central Texas and there seems to be no reason why it 
should not spread over the Gulf States. It is a cosmopolitan 
insect being reported from China, India, Madagascar, Australia 
and Cuba. It was first noticed in the vicinity of New Orleans 
in 1875 and has since spread northward along the Mississippi. J 
In 1879 it was reported from Florida and was studied by Professor 
J. H. Comstock.§ 

The adult beetle is a rather slender insect, about one-quarter 

* Schizocerus privatus Norton. 

t Cylasformicarius Oliv. Family CureulionidoB. 

I Bulletin 28, La. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 999. 

§ Sec Report U. S. Comni. Agr., for 1879, p. 249. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS 'J'O THE SWEl'lr POTATO 



13!) 



inch long, of a bluish-black color, with a reddish-brown prothorax, 
and has received its specific name, formicarius, from its fancied 
resemblance to an ant. 

Life History. — The yellowish-white, oval eggs are deposited 
in small cavities eaten out by the mother beetle either at the 
base of the vine or at the stem end of the tuberous root, or in 
the tubers in storage. The small grubs commence to burrow 
in the vine, sometimes maturing in the vine before any tubers 
have developed, but usually they descend to the tubers, which 




Fir,. 314. — The sweet-potato root-borer {Cylas formicarius): extreme left 
hand figure, adult beetle, with enlarged antennte at right; figure at 
left center, pupa; at right center, larva; at extreme right, portion of 
sweet-potato tuber channeled by borer — all figures except the last con- 
siderably enlarged; natural sizes indicated by hair hnes. (After Far- 
mer's Bulletin, No. 26, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



in the course of the season, and with the aid of the beetles, the}' 
thoroughly riddle. The full-grown larva is about one-quarter 
inch long, whitish with light brown head, the segments are strongly 
constricted, and the legs are wanting, being represented by mere 
tubercles. The grub forms a small cavity at the end of the 
burrow and transforms to the pupa. In this stage it remains from 
one to two weeks, when the adult beetle emerges and after a few 
days commences to lav eggs for another generation. The whole 



440 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

life cycle requires from thirty to forty days, so that there may 
be several generations in a year, Professor Comstock having 
observed three generations. In central Texas the beetles hiber- 
nate over winter, but in south Texas they continue to ])reed in 
the bins during the winter. 

Control. — The following measures of control arc recommended 
by Professor A. F. Conradi, who has studied the species in Texas.* 

" When the insect is known to be present, tubers should not 
be allowed to remain exposed, and should be covered with soil. 
Where beetle attack is anticipated, deep planting should he 
practiced, and if conditions will permit the planting should be in 
flats, because outbreaks will be more readily noticed than when 
planted in ridges. Such planting will permit of cultivation that 
will keep the cracks in the soil closed during drought, thus shut- 
ting up all entering channels by which the adults may reach the 
tubers. When the crop is known to be infested, it should be 
harvested as soon as possible, for every day the infestation will 
increase and the value of the crop will decrease. All tubers 
showing no sign of infestation should be separated from the 
infested ones. The former should be placed in a weevil-tight 
bin [and fumigated with carbon bisulfide if not sold immediately — 
E. D. S.], and the latter destroyed absolutely. The vines should 
be gathered and burned, and the grower should convince him- 
self . . . that no vines or tubers remain in the field." The pest 
may be disseminated in sweet-potato sets intended for planting, 
and may be spread great distances by the tuljers on the open 
market, so that seed potatoes or slips should be secured from 
localities known to be free from it or should be thoroughly fumi- 
gated. The weevils often gnaw the plants, and Professor Conradi 
advises thorough spraying with Paris green or arsenate of lead 
while they are feeding. Potatoas in bins should be thoroughly 
fumigated with carbon bisulfide, ") pounds to 100 bushels for 
thirty hours (see page 57). 

* See Bulletin 89, Texas Agr. Exp. f+ta., p. 40. 



CHAPTER XXII 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY * 



The Strawberry Root-louse t 

Ik bare spots are found in the strawberry bed and the neighbor- 
ing plants are unhealthy, the presence of the root-louse may be 
suspected, especially if ants are abundant around the plants. 
If present, the small dark green or blackish aphides will be found 
clusteretl on the roots and stems, caus- 
ing the plants to wither and die. The 
individual aphid is only about one- 
twentieth inch long, and deep bluish 
or greenish-black when mature, the 
younger stages being lighter, and 
somewhat pear-shaped as shown in 
Fig. 315. 

Injury by this pest was first noted 
in southern Illinois in 1884 and a few 
years later it became troublesome in 
Ohio. In the late '90s it ruined 
many beds on the Maryland-Delaware 
peninsula and became established in 
New Jersey. Since then it has become distributed on plants 
throughout most of the States east of the Rockies, injury having 
been noted in New Hampshire, Michigan, Minnesota, Kansas, 
Texas, and Kentucky. Injury is most severe on light sandy 

* See L. Bruner, Report Nebraska Horticultural Society, pp. 49-100; 
J. B. Smith, Bulletin 225, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.; A. L. Quaintance, Bulletin 
42, Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta.; S. A. Forbes, Dith Report State Ent. of 111., pp. 
60-180. 

t Aphis forbesi Weed. Family Aphididae. See Sanderson, Bulletin 49, 
12th, 13th and 14th Reports, Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

441 




Fig. 315. — The strawberry 
root -louse {Aphis forbesi 
Weed): wingless viviparous 
female of late summer — 
greatly enlarged. 



442 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

soils and the jx'st rarely becomes very troublesome on heavier 
soils. Injury is also more or less periodic, the aphides almost 
disappearing after doing serious injury for two or three j-ears. 
Forturuitely the strawberry is the only food plant and the root- 
lice found on other crops are entirely different species. 

Life History. — During the winter the small, shining black 
eggs may be found thickly clustered upon the stems and along 




Fig. 316. — Strawberry root-lice clustered on small rootlets from cruwu of 
plant— greatly enlarged. 

the midi-ibs of the green leaves. They ai'e mere specks, one- 
thirty-fifth inch long and oval in shape. In early winter as many 
as sixty-five have been found on one leaf, but many fall off and 
are destroyed before spring. The eggs hatch early in April in 
Delaware, the exact time depending on the season. The young 
aphides feed a little on the leaves bearing the eggs but soon find 
their way to the tender young leaves of the crown. These 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 443 

aphides of the first generation beconu; full grown in twelve to 
fifteen clays. The adults soon conmience to give birth to young 
aphides, bearing fifteen or twenty within a few days. All of the; 
aphides of this generation are females, as are all those of the 
summer generations, the males appearing only in the fall. The 
young of the second generation mature and reproduce in the same 
manner and in about the same time as the first generation. Until 
the last of April but few ants are seen, but about that time they 




Fi(i. 317. — Eggs of strawberry root-louse on leaf stem. 

become active and carry the young aphides from the leaves 
down to the roots, where a colony of a dozen or more is established 
on each plant. No aphides are found on the roots until the ants 
appear, and they are entirely responsible for the aphides infesting 
the roots. The ants continue to care for the aphides during the 
summer, carrying them to new plants when they become over- 
crowded or the plant dies, and so are responsible for the spread 
of the pest. The first generations are entirely wingless, but when 
the third generation matures a large number are winged. These 



444 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

wiiigctl females nvv ooiniiiuii in lale May and early June, Their 
bodies are somewhat smaller than those of the wingless forms, 
and appear to be shiny black, though really a deep green. The 
wings expand about one-sixth inch, slightly over three times the 
length of the body. They arc also carried to the roots by the 
ants, wherever they are found, and most of them deposit their 
young on the roots. Although these winged females aid in spread- 
ing the pest in a bed, they probably do not migrate far unless 




Fig. 318. — Strawberry root-lice which have been killed by parasites, \vith 
one of the little parasitic flics which has just emerged. 

carried l)y the wind from a badly infested bed where they have 
become overcrowded. Reproduction continues, one generation 
following another about every two weeks, during the summer and 
early fall. Part of the fourth generation is wing(Hl, but the remain- 
ing generations are wingless. In Delaware the viviparous females 
are common on the roots until cold weather, but doubtless further 
south they may continue to reproduce during the winter. Late 
in October and early in November the offspring develop into 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 445 

true males and females which pair and reproduce by eggs. The 
egg-laying females are very similar to the summer generations 
in general appearance, though of a green color, with often a 
yellowish or reddish shade on the middle of the abdomen. The 
males are much smaller and are hardly to he distinguished from 
the third stage of the female nymphs, and are greatly outnum- 
bered by the females. Each female deposits al)out four eggs, 
which are at first a bright orange color, but turn black in a 
day or two. 

Were it not for its parasitic enemies this insect would always 
be a most formidable strawberry pest, but fortunately they are 
very efficient in its control whenever it becomes abundant. The 
adult parasites are little wasp-like flies,* nearly related to those 
which parasitize the melon-aphis and green-bug. They deposit 
their eggs in the plant-lice, and the maggots live within the 
aphides, usually but one in each. The aphid soon dies from the 
effects of the parasitism, the skin becoming dry and inflated, 
from which shell the adult parasite emerges through a circular 
hole as shown in Fig. 318. Such parasitized aphides are easily 
recognized and should never be destroyed. 

Control. — To prevcnit injury cure must l^e taken to secure 
uninfestcd plants and to plant them on land not already infested. 
Do not replant berries on infested land luitil it has been In some 
other crop for a year or two. As the aphides and their eggs are 
readily transported on plants, it is important that they be secured 
from sources known to be free from the pest. If there is any 
doubt about this or if they are known to be infested, the plants 
should be disinfected before setting. This can l)e done only 
after all the eggs have hatched, as there is no treatment that will 
kill the eggs without injuring the plants. Setting must be delayed, 
therefore, until all eggs hav(^ hatched. The most practicable 
method for disinfecting plants is to dip them for a few minutes in 
tobacco decoction or dilute tobacco extract. Other dips will 
kill the aphides, but sometimes injure the plants, while tobacco 
water has been found efficient and safe. Plants may l)e fumigated 
* L/ysiphlebiis teskiccipes Cress., aiul Lyijoccrua sligmutus Say. 



440 INSECT TESTS OE EAKM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

with hyrdocyanic acid gas Vjy the nurseryman or large grower 
(see the author's Delaware bulletin). If a new bed be planted 
near an old one it may become infested when the winged aphides 
appear in early summer and to prevent tlunr migration it ma}' 
be advisable to plow up the old bed some time l)efore the winged 
aphides appear, or preferably the previous fall. One of the best 



^^^^■^^«!^«^^^s^0Se^- 






M^^'if. 






1 



Fig. 319. — A Delaware strawberry bod in summer of 1900 showing injury l)y 
the strawberry root-louse. 

means of I'cdiicing the jnimbcr of iiphides in a bed is to burn il 
over with a (juick hot fire in early spring, Straw or grass should 
be scattered over the bed and burned just as the growth of the 
plants is connnencing. As all the eggs and young aphides are on 
the loaves and stems, this will practically clear the bed of the 
pest, as well as many other insects and diseases, and if properly 
done will result in no injury. This has been found satisfactory 
in Delaware, but if farther south, the aphides winter on the roots, 
it would not be as effective. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 



447 



The Strawberry Crown-borer '■^■ 

Strawberry plants are often dwarfed or killed by a small vA'hitc 
larva which mines out the interior of the crown, hollowing it out 
from the bases of the leaves to the larger roots. Usually but 
one grub is found in a plant, and it looks very much like a small 
whit(> grub as it lies curled in its burrow. It is only about one- 
fiuart(>r inch long, and legless, the body being white and the head 
yellowish brown. The adult beetle i« a small snout-beetle aljout 
one-fifth inch long, of a dark color, with h(!ad and thorax nearly 
l)lack, and on each wing-cover are three black spots, the middle 
one being the largest and separated from the others by pak; lines. 
According to Professor Garnuin the win";s are too small to be us(>d 




I'k;. 320. — The .s( ravvberry cro\vn-t)orer ( T yloderma fragraruv Riley); a, larva; 
1), r, beetle — enlarged. (After Riley.) 

for Uight and this doubtless accounts for the slow spread of 
the pest. Injury has been reported from Illinois, Kentucky, 
Missoui'i, and Nebraska, but as the larva? might be i-eadily shipped 
in plants, it is quite probable,' that it has become generally 
distributed but has not done sufficient injury to attract attention. 
Life History. — The beetles appear during the latter part of 
summer and fall and hibernate over winter in the soil, emerging 
early the ne.xt spring.. The eggs have not been observed, but are 
undoubtedly laid on the crown between the bases of the leaves 
in late spring. The larv;c develop in the crowns and become full 
grown by midsummer or August when they pupate in the cavities 

* Tyloderma frngrurice Riley. Family Curculionidoe. See S. A. Forbes, 
12th Report 111. State Ent., p. M; 13th Report, p. 142; H. Garman, Bulletin 
SO, Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 2f)l . 



448 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

formed and the adult beetles emerge in late summer and fall. 
There seems to be but one generation a year. Old plants are 
worst injured, and runners formed late in the season are usually 
free from the pest, as eggs are i)i'ol)al)ly not laid after June. 

Control.— Vivqucnt rotation, plowing up the bed after one 
or two crops, will largely prevent the pest becoming established. 
Where the insect is well establislunl in old beds, it Avill ])e well 
to secure plants from beds known to be free from the 
pest and to plant new beds at some distance from the old ones. 
Infest(>d beds should have the plants plowed out and raked up 
and burned as soon as possible after the fruit is harvested and 
before August. Owing to the fortunate fact that the beetle 
cannot fly from field to field, if the above measures are consistently 
carried out there should be no trouble in controlling the injuiy. 

Strawberry Rootworms * 

The larvic of three species of common leaf-l3eetles often feed 
ui)on the roots of the strawberr}- and are easih' mistaken for the 
crown-borer or for small white grubs. They may be distinguished 
from the former by having three pairs of small thoracic legs just 
h&ck of the head, and from the latter liy their being much thicker. 
These rootworms are from one-eighth to one-sixth inch long, 
whitish, with Ijrownish heads, and usually feed on the roots 
externally, though sometimes boring into them or the crown. 
Dr. Forbes* has indicated the structural differences by which 
they may be s(>parated and shows that their life histories are quite 
dissimilar. " The larva of Colaspis appears early in the season, 
and does its mischief chiefly in the months of April and May, 
the beetles beginning to emerge in June. That the eggs are laid 
in the preceding year is highly probable, in which case the species 
hibernates in the egg. Tijpophonis, on the other hand, certainly 
passes the winter as an adult, doubtless laying its eggs in spring, 
and making its principal attacks upon the plants in June and 

* Typophorus canelkis Fab., Colnspis hrunnea Fab., Graphnps pubescens 
Mels. Family Chrysomelidoe. Sec Forbes, 1. c, p. 150. 



1N8ECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 



440 



July, the beetles emerg- 
ing in the latter part of 
July and early in August. 
Graphops hibernates in 
the larval condition, pu- 
pates in the spring, and 
emerges in May and June. 
The eggs are probably 
laid in July, and the 
larvffi make their attack 
upon the plant in August 
and September. . ." — 
Forbes. Thus the larva' 
of the three species may 
bo found thi-oughout the 
season whoi'o all occur. 
The beetles are about 
one-eighth inch long and 
may be distinguished as 
follows , according t o 
Bruner: ^' CoJaspis J»'U)i- 
nen is usually of a yel- 
lowish clay color, but 
ranges to y e 1 1 o w i s h - 
brown. The Ijody is 
smooth l)ut not shining. 
Ti/pojiliorus (■(tueUu-^ is 
usually shiny , 1) 1 a c k 
above, varying to brown, 
with four black blotches 
on the wing-covers. The 
legs and antenna? are 
alwa>'s pale. Graphops 
pubescens is either green 
or purple with a bronze 
metallic sheen, and has 




FiC!. 321. — The strawberry root-borer {Typo- 
phorus canellm Fab.): adult and larva — 
very great'y enlarged, hair line at right of 
beetle shows iratui-al size. (After Pet tit.) 



450 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

the entire body ni()i(» or less covered with a gray pubescence." 
The pupae are all found in earthen cells among the roots of the 
plants. The beetles of all three speci(>s feed on the foliage and 
when numerous will attract attention. 

Control. — Whenever the plants are not in fruit, the beetles 
may be destroyed by spraying with J pound of Paris green or 
3 pounds or arsenate of k^ad per barrel, preferably applied with 
Bordeaux mixture. Where the plants are customarily sprayed 
with Bordeaux mixture for leaf diseases, arsenites may be added 
and will probably control this and other strawberry pests. Badl}' 
infested fields should be plowed under deeply as soon as the crop 
is secured and new beds should be planted at some distance from 
them. 

The Strawberry Saw-fly * 

Occasionally the strawberry leaves are skeletonized by yellow- 
ish or greenish " worms " one-half to three-quarters of an inch 
long when full grown. The head is yellow with two l^rown spots 




Fio. 322. — The strawlx'rry saw-fly (Harpiphorus maculatus Norton): 1, 2, 
pupa; 3, 5, adult flies: 4, 6, larvae; 7, cocoon; 9, egg — all enlarged. 
(After RUey.) 

on the side and one or two on top, and there are eight pairs of 
yellowish aljdominal prolegs, in addition to the true thoracic 

* Harpiphorus maculatus Norton. Family Tenth red inidcp. See J. M. 
Stedman, Bulletin 54, Mo. Agr. Exp. St a. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 451 

legs, which ut once distinguish the saw-fly hirvtp from true 
caterpillars. The adult saw-flies are about one-quarter inch 
long, with two pairs of blackish, well-veined wings which are 
folded over the abdomen when at rest. The body is black, with 
a row of lighter spots on either side of the abdomen. The flies 
emerge in late April in Missouri or about a fortnight before the 
plants flower freely. The eggs are inserted just ])eneath the 
epidermis of the leaves and hatch in about two weeks, just as the 
plants begin to bloom. The larvae eat holes in the leaves and 
" where numerous, they will defoliate the plants to such an extent 
as to greatly injure or completely destroy the crop of fruit, and 
may even kill the plants themselves." When at rest or disturbed 
the larva) coil themselves up in a spiral on the under side of the 
leaf as shown in Fig. 322, but if suddenly disturbed they will often 
drop to the ground. By the last of May the larva? are full grown 
and enter the soil, where they make small cells, lined with a 
gummy substance, and in them hibernate until the next spring, 
when they pupate and the adult flies emerge. 

Injury by the saw-fly has been reported from the northern and 
central States from Missouri and Nebraska to Maine. 

A nearly related species * with almost identical habits has done 
similar injury in Iowa, Illinois and Indiana. Thelarvseare a deep 
green, much wrinkled, with a blackish stripe along the back and 
an ol)scure blackish stripe on each side, and the head brown. 

Control. Inasmuch as the larvse commence to hatch just as 

blooming commences Professor Stedman has shown b}' experiments 

t hat spraying the foliage at this time with arsenicals will entireh' 

protect it from the larvae. If they commence work before their 

presence is noticed, the foliage may be sprayed until the first 

])erries are about one-third grown without any danger of poisoning 

them. Hellebore 1 pound to 3 gallons of water was also effective, 

as was dusting with pyrethrum. Although there may l)e some 

prejudice against the use of arsenicals, where properly applied 

at the right time there is no reason wh}' they should not ]>e used. 

* Monostegta ignota Norton. See F. W. Mally, '" Insect Life," ^'ol. II, 
p. 137. 



452 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Strawberry Leaf-roller * 

Whore leaves are fouiul folded together, many of them being 
dry and brown, the small green caterpillars found feeding within 
the folds are probably those of the Strawberry Leaf -roller. It 
is a European insect, though it is not injurious there, and the 
first recoi'd of injury in this country was made by Dr. C. V. Riley 
in 1869, who stated that in one place in Missouri it destroyed 
ten acres so completely as to not leave enough plants to set a 
half acre. " Since that time," says Dr. J. B. Smith, " the insect 
has been fretjuently mentioned as injurious in many parts of the 
country, but rarely is it troublesome for more than a year or two 




Fig. 323. — The strnwhcrry Icaf-rollor moth {Ancijlis comptana Friihi.) — 
cnlarsod. (After J. B. Smith.) 

in succession. It is always inclined to Ix' local and its ravages 
do not often extend ovci' wide an^as." 

Life History. Tiie moths api)ear in the strawberry fields 
during early May in New Jersey and commence to lay eggs, the 
moths })eing found in the fields for about a month. The eggs are 
laid on tiie undei' surface of the half-grown leaves. They are 
broadly oval or rovmd, much flattened, of a pale green color and 
al)out one-fiftieth inch in diameter. Tiiey are laid in the fine 
netting of the leaf, in which they are seen with gi-eat difficulty. 
The larviT> hatch in from five to seven days. The young catei-- 
pillar feeds on tii(> ui)per surface of the leaf lor a day or two, eating 
into and along the midrib to weaken it. The young larva is at 

* Ancylis comptana Frcihl. Ffiinily Torlricidw. See J. B. Smith, liulletins 
149 and 225, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 



453 



first a light-green color with u large head and long hair, which 
becomes less noticeable as it grows. 

It soon connnonces to draw tli(> edges of the leaf together, 
folding th(! upper surface on liie midrib, holding it together by 
numerous strands of fine silk. The insect then spins a partia 
tube or lining inside, in which it remains until the moth develops. 
Unless disturbed the larva does not leave this folded leaf, and all 




Fig. 324. — Strawberry leaf folded by tlie leaf -roller. (After J, B. Smith.) 

the feeding is done out of the reach of sprays. The larva becomes 
full grown in about four weeks, when it is about half an inch long 
and of a dark-green color, until just before pupation, when it 
becomc's more yellowish. The head and thoracic shield are 
shining brown, and the small body tubercles are slightly lighter. 
The larviB are slender and very active, wriggling violent!}' when 
disturlxMl or taken from their webs. 



454 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

" i'upatioii occurs in llic tube uuule by the luiva. 'I'lic pupa 
itself is brownish-yellow, without {)l)vious processes or protuber- 
ances, and a little more than one-foui-th an inch long." The pui)al 
stage lasts about ten clays, thus giving about forty-two to lift}' 
days for the complete life cycle from egg to adult. 

The moths of the second brood appear late in June and during 
July. This brood is much more abundant on blackberry and 
raspberry than on strawberry plants. The moths of the third 
brood appear in August. They are comparatively few in number 
and also seem to prefer blackberry and raspberry. Young larvie 
are, however, to be found on strawberries in September. " Accord- 
ing to the account given by Riley, the larvae change to pupa; 
late in Septeml)er and remain during the winter in that state." 
Di'. Smith states that he has not ol^served this personally. In 
Delaware we liave found full-grown larvse in folded leaves in 
midwinter, so that possibly some of them at least do not pupate 
until spring. 

" The adult moth is small, measuring with expanded wings 
about two-fifths of an inch. In general color it is somewhat 
reddish-brown, the fore-wings streaked and spotted with l)lack and 
white as shown in the illustration. When the wings are folded, 
the dark area at the base forms a somewhat conspicuous deepei- 
brown patch in the middle of the back. The hind- wings are of 
a soft, dark smoky gray, and both wings have long fringes. The 
insects fly readily during the middle of the day, and run rapidh' 
on the leaves, diving to the under side or into a fold so quickly 
that it requires close watching to follow their movements. 
From the fact that newly set fields are often infested, it 
is probable that they fly for some distance to seek their food 
plant." — Smith. 

" A badly infested strawberry-patch begins to look scorclunl 
early in June, and before the middle of that month appears as if 
a fire had been over it. The fruit, deprived of the food prepared 
by the foliage, stops growth, ripens undersized or prematurely, or 
shrivels up altogether, even before it colors." " Often every 
lobe on a leaf will be fold(>d, and occasionally, when infested 



INSECTS INJURIOUS T() THE STRAU BERllY 455 

leaves cover or touch, an irregular mass of foliage is bundled 
up in which as many as six or eight larvae may be found. 

" On blackberry not so large a part of the leaf is involved, 
and frequently only the tip of one of the leaflets is webbed up. 
Furthermore, the injury is more local, and only that part that 
is actually eaten is harmed. The total amount of food I'eall}' 
devoured is very small, and were it not for the manner of feeding 
which interferes with the nutrition of the leaf, the strawberry 
could easily spare tissue for all these caterpillars that ever infect 
it. On the raspberry the habit is yet different. Here the larva 
gets into a partly opened tip and webs it together so securely 
as to check growth. The actual eating shows a rusty space on 
the upper side of the leaf, and not much more harm is done." 

Control. — As stated above, the young caterpillar, just after 
it is hatched, goes to the upper surface of the leaf and feeds there 
exposed for a day or two before folding the leaf. " It must be 
the object of the grower to poison the foliage so early in the season 
tiiat when the young caterpillar starts feeding, it can find no 
foliage it can safely eat. Therefore, as soon as moths are found 
flying in fair numbers, spray with Paris green, or some other 
arsenite (preferably arsenate of lead). As the plants grow 
rapidly, spray again a week later, and a third time a week there- 
after. This will catch the great bulk of the caterpillars that will 
become injurious in June, leaving only a very few that hatch 
late and cannot cause much harm. A single spraying will do 
comparatively little good, because the moths extend the egg- 
laying period over so long a time. The first larvae are almost 
full grown l^efore the last eggs are hatched." 

" If for any reason no timely applications were made and the 
fields become badly infested, nothing practical can be done until 
the crop is off. Then mow the beds, rake off all the foliage, and 
burn it. You will burn with it all the larvae and pupae that are 
then unchanged. This lessens the number of moths that come 
to maturitA' and so helps somewhat for the following 3'ear." 

" On blackberry and raspberry no remedial measures have 
proved necessary so far. If there are many catei-pillars present 



456 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

late ill the suuiiucr it iiuiy pay tu liandpick all infested leaves 
or to cnisli the larva in the folded leaf. This will tend to lessen 
the number that live ovov winter." 



The Strawberry Weevil * 

If the buds appear to be " stung " so that they wither, and 
if many of the stems are cut so that the buds drop to the ground, 
the strawberry weevil is the probable cause of the damage. This 
little weevil is only about one-tenth inch long and so is often 
unnoticed, and the loss is attributed to other causes. The weevil 
varies from nearly black to dull red, with 
a dark spot just back of the centre of 
each wing-cover. The head is prolonged 
into a slender curved snout, about half 
as long as the l)ody. The species is 
found in most of the States east of the 
Rockies, but injury has been most severe 
in the Middle and Northern States. 

Life History. — The weevils hibernate 
over winter and appear in spring a few 
days Ijcfore the earliest staminate vari- 
eties commence to l)loom. Others emerge 
during the next month, but the most 
injury is done within the next two weeks. 
The injury is done by the females, which 
eat small holes through the outer husk 
or corolla of nearly matured l:)uds, and in 
these little cavities deposit their eggs. 
The stem of the bud is then cut so that it 




Fig. 32.5.— The straw- 
berry weevil (Antho- 
nomus sigudtiis Say) — 
enlarged. (After Riley 
and Chittenden, U. S. 



Dept. Agr.) 

hangs by a mere thread and soon falls to the ground. By severing 
the stem the development of the Ixid is arrested, thus preventing 
the outer covering from unfolding and holding the eggs and larva^ 
in the pollen, on which they feed, and by falling to the ground 
* Anthnnomufi signntuf< Say. Family Curculionidce. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Circular 21, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; .1. B. Smith, Bulletin 22.'), N. J. 
Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE STRAWBERRY 



457 



the bud remains moist and will not dry up as it would on the stem. 
The eggs hatch in from six to seven days and the small whitish 
larva; feed on the pollen and later on the harder parts of the buds. 
Three or foiu' weeks are required for a larva to become full grown. 
It then forms a little cell in the bud, in which the pupal stage is 
passed in from five to eight days, when the adult beetle emerges 
and cuts its way out. Thus the complete life cycle occupies 
about a month and in the District of Columbia the new generation 
of beetles appears during June. They arc frequently found in 




Fig. 326. — The strawberry weevil: a, 6, spray showing work in bud and stem — 
natural size; c, outline of ej;;g; (/, larva; e, head of same; /, pupa; g, 
bud opened to show egg on left and punctures made by snout of beetle 
through petals. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

large numbers on strawberry flowers and on those of the hoi'se 
mint (Monarda fistulosa), but the beetles soon seek hiljernating 
quarters, there being but one generation a year. 

Control. — As the larva? feed upon the pollen of the buds of 
staminate varieties, the staminate varieties are most injured, 
and injury may be avoided by growing as few rows of staminate 
varieties as are necessary for fertilizing the rest of the Ijed. Indeed 
the very early staminate varieties might l)e used as a trap crop 
for attracting the weevils, which might l)e desti'oycMJ by covering 
the rows with straw and l)urning, or possil)]y l)y spraying with 



458 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND' ORCHARD 

arseiiicals. By i)hinting rows of early varieties, which flower 
freely and protluee an abundance of pollen near woods and 
fence-rows wh(>re the beetles have hibernated and appear first, 
they might l)e effectively trapped, and then destroyed. Although 
the larvic cannot \)v reached with any insecticide, the beetles 
feed nioic or less on the ])U(is and foliage, and further experiments 
shoidd be made in spraying for them with arsenicals. In view of 
the recent success in the use of arsenate of lead against the plum 
curculio, we would suggest the thorough spraying of badly infested 
beds with arsenate of lead 3 to 5 pounds per Ijarrel, applying it 
with an untler-spray nozzle so as to thoroughly cover every bit 
of foliage. This should be applied as soon as the buds conunence 
to foi'm and prol)al;)ly a week later before they blossom, as it is 
then that the beetles are feeding. Spraying at that season can do 
no possible harm to the beri'ies, and to spray after the buds are 
injured is useless. The destruction of all trash and rubbish in 
and ai'ound the fields during the winter will destroy some of the 
hibernating weevils, and it will be well to avoid mulching the 
beds where the beetle is troublesome, if the mulch is not abso- 
lutely necessary, ^as it furnishes them the best hibernating 
(juarters. 



CHAPTER XXI II 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY* 



The Raspberry Root-borer t 

The larvffi of the Raspberry Root-borer make tunnels in the 
roots and lower stems of raspberry and blackberry, sometimes 
completely girdling the stem at the crown, so that the name of 
blackberry crown-borer has also been 
used. The full-grown larv^a is from 1 to 
Ij inches long, yellowish-white, with 
brownish head, and the tips of the small 
thoracic legs also brownish. The parent 
insect is one of the clear-winged moths, 
which fly by day and closely resemble 
wasps, and is nearly related to the peach- 
and squash-borers. The female is much 
the larger and is shown natural size in 
Fig. 328. The body is black wath yellow- 
rings, and the legs are yellowish. The 
wings are transparent except a bronze- 
brown margin and a narrow band across 
the fore-wings about one-third from the 
tip. 

Life Histonj. — The moths appear in 
late August and Septeml^er and the females deposit their eggs 
upon the lower edge of the leaves. The egg is oval, about one- 




FiG. 327. — The raspberry 
root-borer (Bembecia 
marginata Harr.) : a, 
male moth; b, female 
moth — natural size. 
(After Riley.) 



* See F. M. Webster, Bulletin 45, Oliio Agr. Exp. Sta.; J. B. Smith, 12th 
Report N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

f Bembecia maryinata Harr. Family Sesiidce. See J. B. Smith, Bulletin 
N, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 9; W. H. Lawrence, Bulletin 63, Wash. Agr. Exp. 
Sta. 

4o9 



460 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



sixteenth iiieli long, deep brownish-red in color. A female lays 
about 140 eggs, which arc deposited singly. They hatch in Sep- 
tember and the young 
larva) crawl down the 
stems and bore under the 
bark. Here they may 
either make a small blis- 
ter-like cavity and hiber- 
nate over winter, or if 
hatched earlier they may 
feed on the sap wood or 
occasionally bore into the 
stem and become one- 
quarter inch or more long 
before winter. The next 
season the larva bore 
in the lower stem and 
roots, but the nature 
of the injury differs 
as observed in different 
places. In New Jersey, 
Dr. J. B. Smith states 
that the larvaj girdle the 
stem at the crown, caus- 
ing the plants to die. In 
spring the}- abandon the 
old wood and attack new 
shoots, but he observed 
none entering the stems. 
In Washington, the in- 
fested plants seldom 
show any signs of the 
presence of the borers 
other than a poor 




Fig. 328. — Raspberry root-borer (Bembecia 
margiiiatn Harr.): n, female and male 
larva? full grown; />,male and female pupa?; 
c, female, and d, male moths resting on 
leaf; e, e, eggs — slightly reduced. (After 
Lawrence.) 



growth, though occasional!}" a few hills will die where the roots have 
been b.-idly riddled by the larva', the injui'}' l)eing mostly in the 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 4G1 

roots. " The borer," according to Lawrence, " first enters the roots 
and tunnels through them promiscuously until the second spring, 
and then directs its course upward, entering and eating the pith of 
the cane for a distance of one to five inches." At the end of the 
first summer the larva is one-half to three-quarters inch long. By 
the middle of the second summer the larva is full grown and 
bores an exit hole through the wood and bark just above the 
crown, leaving the hole covered by the epidermis only. The 
larva then descends into the tunnel and pupates. 

The pupa is about three-quarters inch long, reddish-brown, the 




Fig. .329. — Work of the raspberry root-borer: a, two canes with empty pupa 
cases projecting from burrows; b, canes showing opening of tunnel 
through which i)upa^ have wriggled out. (Aftei- Lawrence.) 

head bears a shai'p-pointed process, and each abdominal segment 
bears two transverse rows of sharp teeth. By means of these the 
pupa wriggles itself out of the burrow until it projects from the 
aperture, and the adult moth emerges. This insect occurs thi'ough- 
out the Middle and Northern States east of the Rockies, is injurious 
in Washington and around Vancouver, B.C., and has l)een 
observed in Colorado and New Mexico. 

Control. — The onl}^ method of control is to pull up tlu> infested 
canes, root and l)ranch, and destroy them Ijv burning. As this 
is the only means of controlling several pests of cane fruits, the 



402 INSIOCT PE8TS OF FAllM, GARDEN AND ORCUIAHD 



canes should always be gone over in spiing and those showing 
any injury examined and removed if affected. 

The Raspberry Cane-borer * 

If the tips of the young shoots of raspberry and blackbcrr}- 
are found withered and dying they have probably been girdled 
by the cane-borer. The adult beetle is about one-half inch long^ 
with a slender, cylindrical l)ody and long antenna^, and of a deep 
black color except the prothorax, which is yellow with two or 
three black spots, though these are sometimes lacking. 

Life History. — The beetles appear in early summer and the 
females girdle the young tips by cutting two rings around the 



1^^"' 




''1 


■i^X -^^^^ 






•f^f ,X 




x^ — ^ 


■ . 


>J 


1^' \ 


1 


/I 




1 


y jBM 


\ 
■ 



lie. .330.— The raspberry cane-borer {Oberea himaculata OYw.): arliiU., larva, 
and larval castings — all enlarged. (After Lugger.) 

shoot about an inch apart, causing the tip to wither and droop. 
Between these rings will be found a small dark spot where the 
female has inserted an egg in the cane. A rather large, elliptical, 
yellow egg is placed in the pith of the cane and in a few days 
hatches into a small white grub. The larvae burrow downward 

* Oberea bimaculata Oliv. Family Cernmbycidw. See Comstock and 
Slingerland, Bulletin 23, Cornell lliiiv. Agr. Exp. Sla., p. 122. 



INSECTS INJITRIOTTS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 463 

tlirougli the pith of the steins, the burrows wiiuling from side 
to side and frequently penetrating the side of the stem, where 
openings are made every few incites, through which long strings 
of excrement are cast out. By fall they have l)ored to the base 
of the cane, in which they hibernate over winter. The full- 
grown larva is about one inch long, of a <lull yellow color, with 
a small dark-l)ro\vn head. The body is (|uite cylindrical and 





Fig. 331. — Egg of the rasp- 
berry cane-borer, showing 
girdling of cane. (Photo 
by Head lee.) 



Fig. 332. — Young grubs and exit hole 
of the raspberry cane-borer. (Photo 
by Headlee.) 



the segments constricted as shown hi Fig. 330. The pupal stage is 
passed in the burrow during the spring. ^\lthough it has been gen- 
erally assumed that the life cycle is passed in a single year, there is 
some reason for believing that two years may be required. The 
eggs are usually laid only in the young tips, but Comstock and 
Slingerland found larvae somewhat over half grown which had made 
burrows only two inches long in old canes in late July, and Professor 
Webster has secured larvae over half grown in early June. Possibly, 



464 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



therefore, two years may be reciuirccl for maturing a generation, 
and the fact that the pest does not increase may be due to the 
cutting back of th(> injured tips of the young canes. 

Control. — As soon as the tips are seen to droop they sliould 
be cut off below the point girdled and burned. When the entire 
canes die from the effect of being tunneled, they should be cut 
in late summer before the larva have gone to the base to hiber- 
luite. Where such measures are practised the pest may be effec- 
tively controlled. 

The Snowy Tree-cricket * 

When the canes fail to put out leaves in the spring and are 
found to be dead, this often proves to be due to a long ragged 
wound like that shown in Fig. 334a. " If the rough surface of 
the wound be cut away with a knife, the injury will be found to 
consist of a longitudinal series of punctures placed close together. 
By splitting the cane the nature of the injury can be seen even 
better. Such a section is shown at b in the figure. The punctures 

extend through the woody part of 
the cane into the pith, and here 
there is in each an oblong, cylin- 
drical egg. One of these eggs is 
represented enlarged at c. The 
insect which thus seriously injures 
the raspberry canes in preparing 
a safe receptacle for its eggs is 
a delicate greenish-white cricket. 
On account of its color and its 
habit of living among the foliage 
of trees and shrubs, it has received 
the popular name of the Snowy 
Tree-cricket. Fig. 3336 represents the male. Its wing-covers are 
crossed by ol^lique thick(>nings or riljs, which form part of the musi- 




FiG. 333. — The snowy tree- 
cricket {Occanthus niveus De 
G.): a, female; b, male — en- 
larged. (After Summers.) 



* (Ecant/ius niveus De(l. Family Gryllida'. See Comstock and Slinger- 
land, Bulletin 23, Cornell I'niv. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 124; H. O. Houghton, 
Entomological News, \'ol. XIV, j). 57. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 465 



cal apparatu.s of the insect. The female, Fig. 333«, differs some- 
what in appearance from tlie fact that the wing-covers are w^rapped 
closely about the bod}-, making the insect much narrower than 
her mate." (Comstock and Slingerland, I.e.) The cry of these 
tree-crickets is well known, sounding much 
like that of the katy-did, but is less 
rasping and more monotonous. They are 
heard in early evening until well into 
the night, and in the North their chirp 
is the most noticeable of all the insect 
noises at that time. This species is 
(juite widely distributed and frequently 
oviposits in the tender twigs of fruit 
trees, which are similarly injured, and 
in the stalks of cotton and various woody 
weeds. 

Life History. — The eggs are laid in the 
fall and hatch in the late spring. The 
nvmphs feed mosth' on plant-lice and 
other in.sects, as do the adults, and though 
they occasionally nibble foliage, they are 
never injm'ious, and both nymphs and 
adults must l)e regarded as beneficial as 
fai- as their feeding habits are concerned. 
In the Xorth the nymphs become full 
gi'own late in July, and tliei'e is but one 
generation a year, but in Texas they 
Ijecome full grown late in June and eggs 
laid in eaily July hatch in about two weeks; 
nymphs are common in late summei-, and 
the adults of the second genei-ation in fail. 

Control. — By examining the canes as soon as the foliage 
starts, those injured may !)(• detected and should be cut 
out and burned. If not numerous enough to do appreciable 
damage thev mav be ignoi'cd. 




Fig. 334. — Raspberry 
stem injured by the 
snowy tree-orioket : 
a, wound made by 
egg - iJimetures ; b, 
longitudinal section 
through same show- 
ing eggs in pith; c, 
egg enhirged; r/, cap 
of egg, more enlarged . 
(After Riley.) 



466 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



The Red-necked Cane-borer * 



Sometimes the canes of raspberry and blackberry are found 
with one or more elongate galls, not over one-third larger in 
diameter than the normal cane, and usually with numerous slits, 
which have been called the " gouty gall." The infested shoots 





Fio. 335. — The red-necked cane-borer (Agrilus ruficollin Fall.): beetle, 
larva, and gall — all much enlarged. (After Riley.) 

may throw out leaves, but they rarely ripen fruit and usually die 
during the season. By opening the gall it will bo found that only 
the bark has been injured by a spiral chaimel wiiich girdles the 
stem and causes the gall-like thickening of the bark. Above 
the swelling evidence will be found of the borer's woik in the 

* Agrillus ruficollis Fab. Family Buprestidce . See .1. B. Smith, 12th 
Report, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 373; and F. M. Webster, I.e., p. 191. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 407 



pith, and from one to six inches alcove the gall the slender white 
larva will be found at work. 

There seems to be considerable difference in the susceptibility 
of varieties, Dr. Smith observing that the '' Wilson " and black- 
cap raspberries are badly infested, while the " Missouri Mammoth " 
and others were unharmed. 

Life History. — The eggs are laid in June, but have not been 
observed. Whether laid on the stalk or on a leaf, the young larva 
enters the bark at the axil of a leaf-stem, and eats around the 




Fig. 33G. — Work of the red-necked cane-borer: a, tracks of young larva^, 
the bark shced away to show burrows and forming gall ridges; h, section 
through galls on main cane and lateral showing track of larva through 
bark and pith and pupal cell. (After J. B. Smith.) 

stem in a long spiral. By early August the galls commence to 
form where the bark has been girdled, though sometimes no gall 
results from the injury, and the larvse mine into the pith. The 
larvae probably become practically full grown in the fall and remain 
in their l^urrows over winter, in which they transform to pupae 
in late April, in New Jersey, and the beetles emerge in late May 
and June. The parent beetle is not over one-third inch long, 
flattened, with a small wide head, and tapers at the tip of the 
abdomen. It has brownish-black wing-covers with a bronzy 
lustre, and the neck and thorax are coppery-red or brassy. The 



468 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

full-grown larva is five-eighths to three-quarters inch long, with 
a small brown head, a much-expanded prothorax which looks 
like the head, and a slender, cylindrical, white body, surmounted 
by two slender brown horns at the tip of the abdomen. 

This cane-borer is a native pest, very common in wild raspberries 
and blackberries, and occurs generally throughout the country. 

Control. — Obviously it may be readily controlled by cutting off 
the infested canes below the galls and burning them. This should 
be done any time before May. Where wild canes are infested 
near those cultivated they should l:)e included in the pruning. 

The Blackberry Gall-maker * 

The so-called " pithy gall " of the blackberry is an elongated. 




Fig. 337.— The pithy-gall of tho blackberry : o, gall ; h, section of same .showing 

larva" in cells; c, larva enlargcnl and natural size; d, pupa. (After Riley.) 

* Dld.stropttus turyUhi^ Bass. Family CijnipidcB. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 469 

pithy swelling from one to three inches long and nearly an inch 
in diameter, red or reddish-brown, with the surface divided by 
deep longitudinal furrows into four or i'lxv. ridges or parts. The 
gall is caused by the larvie of a small l)lack gall-ll}', which is 
about one-twelfth inch long, with red feet and antenni* and four 
transparent wings, almost lacking wing-veins. The insect passes 
the winter in the larval stage in the galls, and if one be opened 
at that season, there will be found about the micklle a number of 
cells al)out one-eighth inch long, each of which contains a single 
larva. The larva " is about one-tenth inch long, white, with the 
mouth-parts reddish, and the breathing pores and an oval spot 
on each side behind the head of the same color." They change 
to pupae in spring and the flies appear a little later. Though 
this gall is also ver}- common on wild canes it rarely does 
much injury. 

Control. — The affected canes should I)e cut and burned during 
the winter. 

The Raspberry-cane Maggot * 

The tips of young raspberry shoots sometimes droop and wilt 
in the spring in much the same manner as when affected by the 
cane-1)orer later in the season, and though blackberry shoots are 
similarly affected they usually recover, but bear small gall-like 
swellings like those shown in Fig. 339. This is the work of a small 
white maggot, nearly related to and looking much the same as the 
cabbage-maggot (p. 347), which girdles the inner bark of the 
stem. Injur}^ has been observed in New York, Canada, Michigan, 
Pennsylvania, and recently it has become a serious pest in Wash- 
ington, so that it is undoubtedly much more widely distributed 
than the records indicate. The parent fly, shown in Fig. 338, 
is grayish black, much resembling the house-fly, but slightly 
smaller. 

Life History. — The flies appear in April and deposit their eggs 
as soon as the shoots are well above ground, continuing until early 

* Phorbia rubivora Coquillet. Family Anthomyidce. See Slingerland, 
Rulletin 126, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 54; W. H. Lawrence, Bulletin 
02, Wash. Agr Exp. Sta. 



470 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

June. The wliite egg (Fig. 33S, c) is elongate, about one-fifteenth 
inch long, and is laid in the axil of a young leaf at the tip of a 
shoot (Fig. ;33S, rl). The (\<!;g hatches in a few days, and the little 




Fig. 338. — The raspbcMiy caiie-iiuiggot (Fhorhia ruhironi Coqviillet): a, adult 
^ female fly; much enlaified ; b, raspberry shoots girdled by the maggot, 
natural size; r, egg nuich enlarged; d, tips of shoots each bearing an egg 
in natural position in the leaf axils, natural size. (After Slingerland.) 



INSECTS INJUKlOrS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 471 

maggot burrows into the pith of the .shoot, leaving a conspicuous 
entrance hole, which becomes blackish. It tunnels downward, 
making a small tortuous channel, and after boring for a few days 
about half way down the shoot, it works its way out to just 
beneath the bark and tunnels around the shoot, often in a spiral, 
so as to completeh' girdle it, and usualh- eats a small hole through 
the bark at this point. The maggot continues to feed on the 
pith at this point so as to nearly sever the shoot, the tip of which 
soon wilts and droops, turning a deep blue color. On blackberr}' 
shoots, however, the bark is so thick that although the tip droops 




Fig. 339. — Gall-like swelling on living blackberry canes caused by the rasp- 
berry cane-maggot. (After Lawrence.) 

for a few days, it usually revives and the giiilling forms a circular, 
gall-like swelling, though even blackberries are often killed. 
Affected shoots usually bi-anch from l^elow the girdled point, 
making a bushy growth. Lawrence states that later in the 
season lateral shoots are also attacked. He also observes that 
maggots never develop in living canes. The maggot continues 
to burrow downward in the pith and becomes full grown in June, 
when it pupates at the lower end of the burrow. The puparia 
are to be found in the lower part of the affected stalk in June 
and July, but the adult flies do not emerge until the next spring. 
Control. — As soon as the young tips are seen to droop they 



472 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

should be cut off several inches l)el()\v the giiillcd point unci 
burned. This may be done best late in Ma}- or in Jun(^ aftei- all 
the eggs are laid. 

The Raspberry Saw-fly * 

Occasionally raspberry leaves, as well as those of blackberry 
and dewberry, are skeletonized in May by small green, spiny 
saw-fly larvae, which sometimes quite defoliate the plant. Such 
injury has been commonly noted in the Eastern and Central 
States. The adult female is a typical saw-fly about one-quarter 
inch long and with a wing expanse of one-half inch. The body 
and wings are black except the second to sixth abdominal seg- 
ments, which are yellowish-white, and the under side is rusty. 
The male is somewhat smaller and is entiicly l)lark except the 
shoulders, which are yellowish-white. 

Life Histori/. — The adults ap])ear al)out the middle of May 
in central New York, and the females deposit their eggs late in 
that month. The eggs are inserted just under the cuticle of the 
under surface of the leaf, and the tissue around them turns 
yellowish, so that infested leaves soon become spotted on the uj^per 
siirface. The egg is nearly pear-shaped, yellowish-white, about 
one-twentieth inch long, and hatches in seven to ten days. As 
many as twenty-four eggs have been observed in a single leaf, and 
frequently the leaves are so spotted as to be readily recognized. 
The young larva is about one-twelfth inch long, yellowish-white 
or pale yellowish-green and well covered with spiny tubercles, the 
spines being first white and later dark brown. The young larvie 
fe(Ml on the soft parts of the leaf, but as they grow older all but the 
midrib and larger veins are devoured. The mature larva is about 
three-quarters inch long, from light yellowish-green to dark green, 
closely simulating the color of the foliage, and the body is covered 
with transverse rows of tubercles, jjearing a varying number of 
strong, barl)ed spines, which are dark brown on the back and 
pale green or white along the sides. The larva feeds for about ten 

* Monophadmis rubi Harris. Family Tenthredinidce. See V. H. Lowe, 
Bulletin 150, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. 




/ V 







Fig. 340.— The raspberry saw-fly {Monophaditns nibi. Harr.): a, male; h, 
female; c, egg blisters on leaf; d, larva; c, cocoons— all imich enlarged. 
(After Lowe.) 



471 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

days and then cntci's the soil fur from two to three inches and 
there constructs a small oval cocoon about one-third inch long, 
which looks like a pellet of earth, being formed of a brown mucilag- 
inous substance, interwoven with coarse strands of silk, to which 
particles of earth adhere. The larva tluni liibernates until the 
next spring, when it transforms to the jjupa and in a few days 
the adult appears, usually early in May. 

CoiUroL — By suddenly jarring or shaking the buslies the 
larvie will drop to the soil. On light soils this habit may be 
utilized for tlunr destruction by jarring them to the ground and 
following with cultivators so as to bury the larva) in the loose soil. 
This will be particularly applicable in hot weather, if the soil is 
hot and dusty, when most of the larvic will be killed before 
regahiing the plants. By frequent cultivation in late summer or 
fall the cocoons might be brought to the surface and some of the 
larvsB might be thus killed during the winter, though this needs 
testing, as they are fairly well protected. The larva may be 
readily killed with arsenical sprays, and if arsenate of leatl were 
applied at the r-ate of 3 pounds per barrel just as the plants 
commence to flower, it would undoubtedly control the pest with 
no possibility of spotting the fruit, or Paris green with Bordeaux 
mixture might be used in the same way. If careful watch is 
kept for the pest it can probably be detected in time to apply 
the arsenicals, which will be mucli the easiest and most effecti\'e 
to use, but if not observed until the canes are fruiting they should 
be sprayed with hellebore, 1 ounce to 1 gallon of water. Hellebore 
may be dusted on the plants mixed with twice its weight of 
flour, l)ut the spraying may be done more thoroughly. 

The Raspberry Byturus * 

The Raspberry B}^turus is a small brown beetle belonging 

to the same family as the larder and carpet beetles, most of which 

feed on animal matter. It is about one-seventh inch long, 

reddish-yellow or reddish-brown, and covered with a thick coat 

* Byturus unicolor Say. Family Dermestidw. See W H Goodwin 
Bulletin 202, Ohio .\gr. Kxp. Sta. ' '-•oodwin, 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO RASPBERRY AND BLACKBERRY 475 



of pale, tawny hairs. The beetles ap^jcar about the middle of 
May in northern Ohio. They feed on the tender foliage and eat 
into the flower butls, and 
sometimes emerge in such 
numbers that the young foli- 
age is skeletonized and many 
of the flower buds do not 
develop. Though the eggs are 
laid in June, they have not 
been observed. The larvie 
appear in late June and July 
and feed in the fleshy head on which the berry is boi'n, causing 
the affected berries to ripen earlier, making them small and unfit 
for market. Furthermore the little larvae not infrequently 




Fig. 341. ■ — Larva and adult of 
the raspberry byturus — enlarged. 
(After Goodwin.) 




Fig. 342. — Early ripening berries, the smaller ones infested with Byturus 
larvse. (After Goodwin.) 

remain in the cup of the berry, which necessitates picking teh 
berries over and injures their sale. The larva is about one- 



476 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 

quarter iiu-h lung, nitlier plum]) unci cylinclrieul, unci tapering 
at each end. The body is white, but each segment is nuirked 
across the bade with a broad, tawny yellow band, and numerous 
short white hairs. When full grown the larva drops to the 
ground and forms an earthen cell just beneath the surface, in 
which it transforms to a yellowish pupa, from which the beetle 
emerges the next spring. Onh' red raspberries seem to be affected, 
and some varieties are particularly injured. The insect has been 
reported as injurious from Minnesota to Massachusetts and in 
Ontario. 

Control. — Inasmuch as the beetles feed freely on the foliage 
before ovipositing they may be destroyed by spraying the leaves 
with arsenate of lead. Mr. Goodwin has shown that where 
foliage was sprayed with 4 pounds per barrel, that three-fourths 
of the subsequent injury to the berries by the larva? was prevented 
by the destruction of the beetles, and the injury to the flower 
buds was also lessened. Thorough cultivation in the fall close 
around the bushes will probal^ly destroy many of the pupa3 by 
exposing them to winter weather. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 

The Imported Currant-borer * 

One of the worst pests of the currant and gooseberry is the 
borer, which tunnels out the canes and where abundant frequently 
kills the plants. It is a European insect which has spread to 
all parts of this country where these fruits are grown. The 
adult is one of the clear-winged moths and with the larva is very 




Fig. 343. — The imported ourrant-borer (Aegeria tipidiforniis Clerc-k): moth, 
larva, and empty pupal skin left protruding from burrow. (After 
Lugger.) 

similar in appearance and habits to the raspberry root-borer 
(p. 459). The moth is about one-half inch long with a wing- 
expanse of three-quarters inch. The body is black with a steel- 
blue lustre, with a bright yellow band around the neck and three 

* ^geria tipuliformis Clerck. Family Semidoe. See Lugger, 1st Report 
Minn. State Entomologist, p. 1S4. 

477 



478 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND OHC^IIARD 

yellow bands across the abdomen, which boars a large tuft of 
long scales at the tip. The wings arc clear except for a margin 
of blackish scales and a band across the fore- wings ahont one- 
third from the tip. 

Life History. — The moths appear in June and deposit their 
small globular, brown eggs in the axils of the leaves next the 
canes, or under scales or in cracks of the canes. The young 
caterpillars bore into the pith of the canes, which they tunnel out, 
and are about half grown by winter, when they descend to the 
bottom of the burrows and hil^ernate. In the spring they con- 
tinue their work and become full grown by Ma}'. The full- 
grown larva is slighth' over one-half inch long, of a yellowish 
color, with l^rown head, and with numerous small tubercles over 
the Ijody. It cuts a hole through the side of the burrow, which 
it closes with small chippings, and then transforms to the pupa. 
When the moth is ready to emerge th(^ pupa wriggles itself partly 
out of the bui'row by means of the strong spines on the abdonu^i, 
and the moth comes forth. Affected canes can 1)0 recognized 
by the dwarfed and yellow foliage and \\\v gonei-al uidioalthy 
appearance of tlio plant, aiul if not removed will usually die dui'iug 
the season. 

Control. — The only niothod of coiitiT)! is to keep all the old 
wood HMnovod and to cut out and l)urn all affected canes in fall 
or caily s))ring, whonev(>r \\w injuiy may ])ost be detected. 

The Currant-stem Girdler * 

In late spring, after th(> young currant-shoots have reached 
a growth of several inches, two or throe iiu'hes of the tips some- 
times wilt, and fall o\-or and hang suspended oi- drop to the ground. 
If examination shows that the tip has l)oon girdled by several 
sharp cuts, it is prol)al)ly the work of the Cuirant-stem Girdler. 
It is a native in.soct which was fii'st dosciibed from Massachusetts, 
and has also been found injurious in Uhode Island, Canada, Ohio 

* Janva ■integer Norton. Family TentJiredinidoe. See Slingerland, Bul- 
letin 126, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin No. 4U, 
Bureau of Forestry, pp. (iS-70. 



^^M»' •■ i<^ iiii^ 


^Hi ^^"^ 


— ■ ^ 




^^M 


«^«^.^^^ ! 




fTS^B^H 




a M 


^^j^^H 


m 




Fig. 344. — The currant stem-girdler {Janus integer Norton): a, female at 
work girdling a currant stem — natural size; b, girdled portion of stem 
much enlarged to show character of girdle; r, stem cut open to show 
egg; t/, egg — much enlarged. (After Slinger land.) 

47'J 



480 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

ami Michigan, but lias been most troublesonie in New York. 
It has also been noted as a pest of wiUow and i)ophir in Mary- 
land, and of basket willow in Kentuck}', Indiana, and (Jhio, so 
that it is doubtless quite generally distriljuted. The adult insect 
is a slender saw-fly with shining black body and light brownish 
legs, shown natural size in Fig. 344a. The male is smaller and 
has a brownish-}ellow abdomen, while in the female the first 
half of the abdomen is reddish-orange and the rest is black. The 
adults are abroad in May, but are very shy and are seldom seen. 




Fig. 345. — Currant stem girdled by the stem-girdler. (After Slingerlaiul.) 

They are saw-flies in the truest sense of that term, for the female 
makes most efTective use of her saw-like ovipositor, as has been 
very interestingly described and illustrated by Professor Slinger- 
land. The ovipositor is thrust into the cane for its whole length, 
and through it the egg is deposited in the pith. The egg is an 
elongate-oval shape, yellowish-white, and about one-twenty-fifth 
inch long (Fig. 344d). Immediately the female moves an inch 
or two higher and girdles the stalk by numerous thrusts of her 
ovipositor, which is thrust in and then given a twist to one side 
so that it comes out at one side of where it was forced in, and 
makes a horizontal cut. The eggs are laid in late May and early 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 481 

June and hatch in al:)Out eleven days. The young hirva bore 
into the pith, luit tlie tunnel rarely extends over six inches below 
the point girdled. The full-grown larva is hardly one-half inch 
long, of a glistening straw-yellow color, with darker head. The 
thoracic segments are wider than the others and bear rudimentary 
feet, and from the tip of the stout, cylindrical abdomen projects 
a horny, brown bifid spine. In the fall the borer cleans out its 
burrow at the lower end and eats a hole through the woody wall 
of the stem to the outer bark, which sinks in at this point. The 
grub then spins a thin silken cocoon about itself, in which it 
hibernates over winter, transforming to a whitish pupa in April, 
from which the adult emerges early in May. The girdling of 
the stalks is the principal injury, and those which harbor the pest 
may be recognized, even in winter, by the characteristic dead 
stubs, cut off squarely at the upper end. 

Control. — The drooping of the tips in May is soon noticed 
and during June they should be cut off about three inches lower 
down and burned, or if the pruning is left until winter the infested 
stubs should be cut off about eight inches below the point girdled, 
as the larvoj rarely tminel deeper. 

The Four-lined Leaf-bug * 

This is one of our most common l(^af-l)ugs, which has a long 
list of food plants, but is particuhii-ly injurious to the young 
foliage of currant and gooseberry. The adult bug is easily 
recognized, as the upper surface is a dark green with four stripes 
and the tips of the wing-covers black, as shown in Fig. 346. The 
green changes to yellow after death and the body is liright orange- 
yellow, and the legs green. The '' presence of the pest is indicated 
by the appearance of the peculiar brown depressed spots on the 
tender terminal leaves " in early summer. " As the attack con- 
tinues, whole leaves turn brown, curl up, become brittle, and are 
torn or broken by the wind. The young shoot is checked and 
frequently droops and dies. The buds of dahlias and roses are 

* Pariloeapsuf^ lineatus Falx Family Capf<idoe. See Slingerland, Bul- 
etiu 5S, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



482 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



often blasted." Slingerland gives a list of some fifty-seven food- 
plants, including all sorts of crops, ornamcnital plants and weeds. 
Parsnip, mint, sage, rose, deutzia, dahlia, and others are often 
badly injured. The species has been observed from Canada to 
Georgia and westwaid to the Dakotas, so that it is probabl)' 
generally distributed east of the Rockies. 

Life History. — The nymphs hatch from the overwintering eggs 
in late May and early June and are very largely responsible 
for the injuiT to the foliage. The newly hatched nymph is only 





Fig. .340. — Tho four-lined loaf-lnig {PuccUocapaus Uncut us Fab.): a, adult; 
6, cro.ss-sertion of .stem .siiowing eggs in position and a singl(> egg greatly 
enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 

about one-twentieth incli long, but is easily recognized by the 
shining vermilion-red color of the body, marked wit h ]arg(> blackish 
spots on the thorax and with gre(>nish-black anteima> and legs. 
The nymphs grow rapidly. Ixu-oming full grown in .seventeen to 
twenty days after hatching, during which time they ha\'e molted 
five times. The full-grown nymph is about one-fifth inch long, 
bright orange yellow, and the black wing-pads extend half way 
to the end of the abdomen and bear a yellowish green stripe near 
the outer margin. The nympiis f(>ed on the tenderest young 
leaves, sucking out the juices and soft tissue through their tiny 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 483 



beaks, and thus causing the spots mentioned. " As the nymphs 
increase in size the spots are a little larger and more numerous, 
until not only hundreds occur on a single leaf, but often nearly 
all the parenchyma is taken from the leaf." The nymphs are 
very active and dart from one side of the leaf to the other when 
disturbed. The adult bugs appear about the middle of June 
and are active for a month or more, when they disappear. The}- 
mate and the females commence to lay eggs about a week after 




Fig. 347. — Currant leaf spotted by the nymphs of the ioui-line<l leaf-bug. 

(After Slingerland.) 

they first appear. The female is furnished with a strong ovipositor 
with which she inserts the eggs in slits cut lengthwise into the 
stems of the plants extending nearly half way through the pith. 
A half-dozen or more eggs are packed together in the small slit, 
which may be one-eighth inch long. The individual egg is about 
one-sixteenth inch long, light yellow, and shaped as in Fig. 346e, 
with the upper third capped by a white, finely striated portion. 
" With the gi'owth of the surrounding tissue of the stem, the eggs 



484 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

arc usually forced out of the slit somewhat, so that about one-half 
. . . of tlie white porticni of the egg projects from the slit." 
Most of the slits are made two or three inches, rarely over six 
inches, below the tender tips. 

Control. — Experiments indicate that the nymphs may be 
killed by spraying them with kerosene emulsion containing 10 
per cent kerosene. Tobacco extracts should also be tried. The 




Fig. 348. — Cununt loaves killed by the four-liruMl leat'-buji;. (After Slinger- 

"hmd.) 

adults ar(» not susceptibl(> to this treatment, however. Roth 
nymphs and adults will drop from the foliage when distiu'bed, 
and Prof(>ssor Slingerland has suggested that they might be jarred 
into a pan of kerosene. By drawing pans, such as constructed 
for combating the pea-aphis (p. 326), between the rows and 
jarring the l)ugs into them, many might be destroyed. As the 
eggs are readily recognized, the tips containing them should be 
cut off and destroved durinii' the winter. 



The Currant-aphis * 

The young foliage of currants, and sonu'times of gooseber- 
ries, is often found curled up in late sj)ring with many l)ladder- 

* Mi/zus ribis Linn. Family Apliididw. See V. 11. Lowe, Bulletin 131), 
N. Y. .\{ir. Exp. Sta., p. 0()0. .\nother .species, /?/(o/w/o.s//)/(uw rihis Linn., 
is also common im currant and is described and fijrured 1)V Mr. Lowe. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 485 

like galls on the Icjivcs, inside of which are found the numerous 
yellowish-green plant-lice which have caused iheni. The wing- 
less females are about one-twelfth inch long, yellowish-green 
or green, mottled with darker shades, and with bright red eyes. 
The winged female is slightly longer, with wings expanding one- 
third inch. It is bright greenish-yellow, with pale olive head, 
thoracic lobes brown, and th(^ abdomen is marked by several dark 
transverse bantls and lutcMal spots. It is an old European 




Fig. 349. — Currant foliage curled by aphides. (After Lowe.) 

species and is probably found throughout the United States where 
currants are grown. 

Life History. — The life history is practically the same as that 
of several other aphides previously described and need not be 
rehearsed in detail. The small l)lack eggs are found on the stalks 
in winter and hatch just as the foliage appears. The aphides 
nndtiply on the foliage, causing it to curl as described, until 
midsummer, when they either migrate to some other food-plant 
or become greatly reduced in numbers through the attacks of 
parasites and predaeeous insects, which are very effective in the 
control of this species. Mr. Lowe states that a few females may 
])Q fountl on the foliage throuj-hout the sunnner. In late October 



486 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



winged males appear and mate with the true females, which then 
lay the eggs. 

Control. — The aphides may be readily killed by spraying with 
kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 6 gallons of w^ater, 
or tobacco extracts, but the spraying must be done before the 
foliage becomes badly curled. Ordinarily the}- may be held 
in check by picking off the curled leaves b}- hand. 



The Imported Currant-worm * 

" The most destructive insect that attacks tlie currant," says 
Professor Lugger, '' is the above-named saw-fly, which feeds 




Fig. 350. — The imported currant-worm {Pteronus ribesii Scop.): a, male and 
female .saw-flies; b, larvae; c, pupa; d, cocoon; e, eggs — all enlarged. 
(After Lugger.) 

indiscriminately on all kinds of currants and gooseberries. The 
imported species is supposed to have been accidentally inti-oduced 

* Pteronm ribesii Scop. Family Tenthredinidae. See Lugger, Bulletin 
43, Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 179; C. L. Marlatt, Bulletin 3, Tech. Series, 
Div. Ent., p. 61. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CUUIlAN T AND GOOSEBERRY 487 

into this country about the year 1857, and has since spread over 
the greater part of the United States and Canada. The eggs are 
glued to the main-ribs of the leaf as shown in Fig. 350, and not 
inserted into pockets, as is usually the case with saw-flies. . . , 
In from four to ten days the egg hatches into a very small whitish 
caterpillar with a white head and ornamented with black spots 
on each side. This color, however, changes to green as soon as 
the caterpillars begin to feed, and after their first skin is shed, 
the head becomes black and many black spots appear on the bod}'. 
This coloration persists until the last molt when the insect becomes 
grass-green. The head, however, retains the black spots on 
each side. The length of the worm is now about three-fourths 
of an inch. AVhile growing they at first skeletonize the leaves; 
later they eat the entire leaf, with the exception of the ribs, and at 
last they devour immense quantities of them, often completeh' 
stripping the bushes of their foliage. If this is repeated year after 
year, the plants produce less and less fruit and eventually die. 
The larvae now descend to the ground, in which they spin a small, 
oval cocoon of brownish silk, either just below the surface of 
the ground or among the leaves and rubbish that collect below the 
plants. Inside these cocoons the}- change to pupa? and later 
to adults, which are ready to issue as winged saw-flies during the 
last of June or in July (in Minnesota), sometimes not until the 
first of August. They now pair and produce a new generation 
of injurious worms . . ., the adults of which do not, however, 
issue until the following spring. As the two broods overlap, 
we can find larvte of all stages during the greater part of the 
summer." The adult saw-flies are well illustrated in Fig. 350. 
The female is about one-third inch long, of a light yellowish color 
marked with blackish as sliown in the figure, while the male is 
smaller and rather darker. 
Control. — Sec page 488, 

The Native Currant-worm * 

The native currant-worm is not usually so destructive as the 
European species, but occasionally becomes injurious and is 
* Gymnanychus appendiculatus Hartig. Family Tenthredinidae. 



488 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

widely distribiiU'cl, occuriiiig iVoiii Xcw r>nghi,iul lo iMiiuu'Sotti 
and Colorado, in British Cohuuhiu, and probably in the 
Pacific States. The larva if< al)out two-thirds the size of the 
imported species, but is uniformly pale-green except the head 
which is black until the last molt, after which it becomes parti}' 
green. One generation of larvae appears in late June and another 
in August. The cocoons are usually attached to the twigs or 
leaves of the bushes. The female saw-fly is dull black with dull 
yellow lu^ad, and honey-yellow legs. 

Control. — While fruiting the foliage should be dusted or sprayed 
with hellebore, which is the time-honored remedy for currant- 
w^orms (p. 47). However, before the fruit has set and after it 
is picked, spraying with arsenicals will be much cheaper and more 
effective, and as it is often desirable to spray gooseberries for 
diseases with Bordeaux mixture, by adding arsenate of lead or 
Paris green to it, the worms may be easily controlled. 



The Currant Span-worm * 

The Currant Span-worm is rcuxdily distinguished from the other 
currant " worms," by being one of the measuring-worms or inch- 
woi'ms which looj) ahmg as shown in I'ig. 351. It is not frequently 
very destructive, but occasionally becomes a pest, more pai-- 
ticularly of black currants and gooseb(>rries, throughout th(> 
eastern half of the country. The caterpillar is slightly over an 
inch long when full grown, and of a whitish color with a wide 
yellow stripe down the Ixack, another along each side, and several 
lilack spots on each segment. The under side is white with a 
slight pinkish tinge, with a bi-oad yellow median stripe, and is also 
spotted with l)lack. The moth has a wing expanse of about 1| 
inches, is a pale yellowish color, with several brownish spots, 
varying in size and sometimes forming one or two irregular l^ands 
across the wings. 

Life History. —The eggs (Fig. 351a) are laid in midsummer on 



* Cymataphord ribmrio I'itch. Family Geomciridoe. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 489 

the twigs of the infested phiiits and hatch as the bushes come 
into full leaf the next spring. The caterpillars become full 
grown in three or four weeks, when they pupate just beneath 
the surface of the soil, and two or three weeks later the 
moths emerge. 

Control. — Hellebore is not as effective as against the saw-fly 
larvcC and as the larvte usually appear before the fruit is setting, 
they may be better controlled by spraying with arsenicals. When 




Fig. 351. — The currant span-worm (Cymalomorpha ribcria Fitch): 1, 2, larvae; 
3, pupa; a, egg; b, eggs on twig; c, moth — a, much enlarged, others 
natural size. (After Saunders.) 



the caterpillars are disturbed the}' drop from the foliage, letting 
themselves down by a silken thread and remaining suspended in 
mid-air until danger is over, when they reascend the thread. 
This habit may be utilized for their destruction by jarring the 
bush so that they will drop, and then passing a forked stick around 
it so that all the threads may be caught and the caterpillars may 
be drawn out in groups and crusluMl with the foot. 



490 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Currant-fly * 

Currants and gooseberries sometimes turn red and drop pre- 
maturely, due to the injury of small maggots which may be found 
within them. The insect has been troublesome in Maine and is 
sometimes a serious pest in Colorado. It is a native insect and is 
probably generally distributed throughout the northern United 
States and southern Canada. The adult fly is about the size of 
a house-fly, a pale yellowish or yellowish-brown color, with dark 




Fig. 352. — The currant-fly (Epochra canadensis Loew.) — much enlarged. 

(After Gillette.) 

bands across the wings, and a tapering abdomen, as shown in 
Fig. 352. 

Life History. — The flies appear in late spring and the females 
deposit their eggs in the older berries. A female will lay about 
200 eggs during the period of a month, placing but one in a berry, 
so that a single fly may do considerable damage. The white egg 
is about one-twenty-fifth inch long and laid just under the skin, 

* Epochra canadensis Loew. Family Trypetidce. See F, L. Harvey, 
Bulletin 35, Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY 491 

where it is easily seen. The egg hatches in a few days into a 
small white maggot, which burrows around the berry and then 
feeds upon the seeds. The location of the larva may be seen, as 
the infested currant soon shows a clouded appearance and finally 
turns red and a black spot appears. The maggot becomes full 
grown in about three weeks and then eats its way out of the berry, 
which has usually fallen to the ground. The mature maggot 
enters the soil for about an inch and there changes to the pupa, 
from Avhicli the fly emerges the next spring. 

Control. — As the maggots usually remain in the berries a few 
days after they drop, all fallen berries should be frequently 
picked up and destroyed. Poultry running among the bushes 
will do this very effectually. Other methods will suggest them- 
selves from the above life history, but none seems to have been 
carefully tested. 



CHAPTER XXV 

INSECT8 INJURIOUS TO TUK GU.VPE * 
The Grapevine Phylloxera f 

This insect is native cast of the Rocky Mountains, where it 
has always lived upon wild vines and did not attract attention 
until it was imported into France about 1859, as it does practically 
no damage to the native American grapes. It soon sj)r(>ad through 
the principal wine districts of south(»rn Europe, when^ it caused 




Fig. 353. — The grapevine phylloxera {Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon): a, true 
sexual female, the dark colored area indicating the single egg; b, egg; 
c, shrivelled female after oviposition ; (/, foot of same ; e, rudimentary and 
functionless mouth-parts. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

immense losses and the temporary abandonment of vineyards, 
due to the fact that the European varieties are very susceptible 
and readily succuniD to injur}- by it. It has spread to southern 
Russia and the adjoining countries of Asia and Algeria, and has 
been carried to New Zealand and South Africa. In this country 

*See A. L. Quaintance, Farmers' Bulletin 284, U. S. Dept. Agr.; H. J. 
Quayle, Bulletin 192, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. Z. Hartzell, Bulletin 331, N. Y. 
Agr. Exp. Sta. 

f Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon. Family Apliididoe. See C. L. Marlatt 
Farmers' Bulletin 70, IT. S. Dept. Agr., and Quayle, 1. c, 

11)2 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



493 



it is iiijuriou.s only in Caliloinia, where it was imported on French 
vines about 1874. It was first noticed in Sonoma County and 
since then has spread to all the principal grape-growing regions 
north of Tehachapi and has probably destroyed 50,000 acres. 

This aphid exists in several forms, which injure both foliage 
and roots. On the leaves irregular spherical galls are produced, 
and the root-inhabiting form produces galls on the roots. The 
leaf-galls are very common on American grapes, but are no 
indication of the presence of the root form, as the roots are rarely 
injured where the foliage is covered with leaf -galls. On the other 
hand the European varieties rarely exhibit any leaf-galls, but are 




Fig. 354. 



-Under side of grape leaf showing galls caused by Pvylloxora. 
(After Riley.) 



very susceptible to the root phylloxera, wdiich multiplies without 
any external indication of its presence until the vine is seriousl}^ 
injured. The injury to the vine is not due so much to the sap 
taken from the vine by the myriads of aphides which may inhabit 
the roots, as to their poisonous effect on the root tissue and its 
subsequent decay. Wherever the phylloxera attack the roots, 
small swellings are produced, composed of soft tissue, which soon 
decays. When such a gall is formed at the end of a young root, 
its growth is stopped, and on larger roots a decay sets in which 
finally girdles the root and all below the injured point dies. As 



494 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

all the roots become affected the vine stops growing, the leaves 
become sickly and yellowish, and the vine dies, and the phyl- 
loxera disappears from the rotting roots, so that the cause of the 
injury would be obscure were the nature of the injury not known. 
Life History. — The life history of the phylloxera is a com- 
plicated one, involving four different forms of aphides; the leaf- 
gall form, the root or destructive form, the winged or colonizing 
form, and the sexual form. The winter eggs are deposited on the 
rough bark of the old wood in the fall and hatch the following 




Fig. 355. — The grapevine phylloxera: a, winged migrating female; h, last 
stage of nymph of some; c, mouth-parts with thread -Hke sucking setiE 
removed from sheath; d, and e, eggs of male and female, showing sculp- 
turing — all enlarged. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agi\) 

spring. The young aphides settle on the leaves, where the irrita- 
tion caused by their mouth-parts soon causes a depression around 
each which forms a gall projecting on the lower side of the leaf. 
" In about fifteen days the louse bcconics ;i plump orange-yellow, 
full-grown, wingless female, and fills its gall with small yellow 
eggs, dying soon after. The eggs hatch in about eight days into 
young females again like the parent, and migrate to all parts of 
the vine to form new galls. Six or seven generations of these 
wingless females follow one another throughout the summer. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



495 



frequently completely studding the leaves with galls." In 
California the young hatching from the winter eggs go directly 
to the roots where the}^ give rise to new colonies, there being no 
gall forms, according to Quayle. Where the leaf-gall females 
occur many of them probably migrate to the roots during the 
summer, and all do so with the approach of cold weather. In the 
spring the roots are attacked and a series of generations of wingless 
females multiply on them. As there are five to seven generations 
in a season and each female lays from 30 (Quayle) to 100 (Marlatt) 
eggs, it is evident that they will soon be numerous enough to 
destroy the vine. The root-inhabiting females are very similar 




Fig. 856. — Grapevine phylloxera: a, root galls; b, enlargement of same 
(showing disposition of lice; c, root-gall louse — much enlarged. (After 
Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

to those in the leaf -galls, and arc about one-twenty-fifth inch long 
when mature and half as long when young and active. They are 
light greenish-yellow in summer and darker in winter, and when 
numerous the infested roots look as if dusted in spots with pow- 
dered mustard, according to Quayle. He states that " the newly 
hatched insect is fairly active, aiid at first moves from place to 
place on the roots, but finally, when it reaches the egg-laying 
stage, inserts its sucking-tube into the root and remains fixed." 
During the late summer and early fall some of the root-lice develop 
into winged females which escape through cracks in the soil and 



496 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

fly to neighboring vines. The\' lay from two to four eggs l^eneath 
the loose bark on the old wood and soon die. " The eggs are of 
two sizes, the smaller and fewer in number yielding males in nine 
or ten days, and the larger the females of the only sexed generation 
in the whole life round of the insect. In this last and sexed 
stage the mouth-parts of both sexes are rudimentary, and no 
food at all is taken. The insect is very minute and resembles the 
newl}' hatched louse of either the gall or root form. After fertili- 
zation the single egg of the larva-like female rapidly increases 
in size until it fills the entire body of the mother and is laid within 
three or four days, bringing us back to the starting point."* The 
phylloxera has been distributed over the world by infested rooted 
plants or cuttings bearing winter eggs, and is spread locally by 
means of the winged females, by the escape of the young root- 
lice through cracks of the soil and their migration to neighboring 
plants, or by bits of infested roots being spread in cultivation, 
and by the leaf-gall lice being spread to other plants by the wind 
or by being carried by birds or insects. 

Control. — The principal means of control lies in the use of 
resistant vines. These may be varieties which have proven 
successful in the eastern United States, where the insect is native, 
or more commonly the stocks of grapes from the Eastern States 
are grafted with the desired varieties. There is a marked varia- 
tion in the resistance of different species and varieties and not all 
of them can be successfully used as stocks for the desired scions, 
so that the successful use of the method, which is fully outlined 
by Quayle, I.e., requires a considerable knowledge of viticulture. 

Carbon bisulfide has been used very extensively for destroying 
the root-lice, but is expensive and is only applicable on rich, deep, 
loose soils. It cannot be used successfully on soils containing 
much clay, or on dry rocky hillsides, or when the soil is saturated 
with moisture, and is most effective on sandy soils where the 
insect is least injurious. It is applied at the rate of 125 to 250 
pounds per acre at a cost of S15 to $25 per acre. It may be 
applied any time except during the blossoming and ripening of 
* Quotations from Marlatt, 1. c. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 497 

the fruit, two applications, one after vintage and the other just 
before blossoming, giving the best results. It is applied by 
pouring one-half to three-quarters ounce into holes a foot deep, 
from IS to 24 inches apart, all over the vineyard, but not nearer 
than one foot to the vine. The holes may be made with an iron 
rod or dibble and are closed by packing the soil down with the 
foot as soon as the liquid is poured in. Where extensively used 
special injectors are used. Where the vines are much weakened 
they do not withstand the effect of the bisulfide, and treated 
vines must be thoroughly fertilized and cultivated. 

One of the best methods of destroying the root-lice where 
water is available is by submersion. In California the best results 
are secured by flooding with at least six inches of -^ter for a 
week or ten days as soon as the vines have ceased active growth 
in November. A little later two to three weeks' sul:)mcrsion will 
be necessary and in winter thirty-five to foi'ty days. Flooding 
for a couple of daya in midsummer seems to destroy some of the 
insects, but its main value is in stimulating a vigorous growth 
of new rootlets. Longer flooding in summer, when the aphides 
might be most easily destroyed, injures the vines. 

On very sandy soils vines are uninjured by the phylloxera. All 
sandy soils are unfavoral^le to the pest and vines on them die 
more slowly, but to secure complete^ immunity there must be at 
least GO pei- cent of siliceous sand. Sands containing clay or 
which form lumps offer less resistance. 

The Grapevine Root-borer * 

The larviip of the Clrapevine Root-borer feed in the old roots at 
some little distance from the base of the vine, and as there are 
no indications of the pest, its presence may easily pass mmoticed. 
.Vlthough not generall}' recognizcnl as a serious one it has licen 
known as a pest of the grape for fifty years, and has l)een observed 
to do considerable damage in Kentucky and ^^'est Virginia. 

* MemytJirxs polistiformis Harris. F.-iinily Sesiidcr. See Fred E. Brooks, 
Bulletin 110, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



498 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Although the vines are not killed, they are so enfeebled that they 
make but little growth and the crop is much curtailed. All 
varieties are affected in West Virginia, including the wild fox 
grape, Vitis labrusca. It is stated that in the South the Scupper- 
nong, or southern wild fox grape, is immune from attack. The 




Fig. 357. — The grapevine root-borer (Memythriis poliatiformis Harris): male 
and female moths on wild lettuce leaf under grapevine — natural size. 
(From Brooks.) 

species has been observed from Minnesota and Missouri, eastward 
through Ohio and Kentucky to West Virginia and North Carolina. 
The parents of the borers are clear-winged moths nearly 
related to the peach-tree borer, currant-borer, and raspberry- 
borer. The females are seven-eighths inch long with wings expand- 
ing I2 inches. They are a dark lustrous brown color, the fore- 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 499 

wings being brown and the hind-wings transparent and bordered 
with brown. The posterior margins of the second and fourth 
abdominal segments are orange or lemon-yellow, and there are 
spots of the same color at the bases of the wings. The males 
are considerably smaller than the females. The moths fly during 
the day and are readily mistaken for wasps of the genus Polistes. 
The males fly in a quick, wasp-like manner, and when they rest 
on a leaf will occasionally flutter the wings like an angry wasp, 
which is accompanied by a low buzzing sound, which makes the 
mimicry very effective. 

Life History. — The eggs are laid singly on weeds, grasses or 
other vegetation in the vineyard or on the bark or leaves of the 
vines, a single female laying some 400 eggs. 
The egg is oval, one-twenty-fifth inch long, 
of chocolate-brown color, and finely pitted 
and sculptured. They are very readil}' washed 
off by the rain and drop to the soil, wdiere 
they hatch in about three weeks. The little 
larvae bore directly into the soil, wherever 

they may be, in search of grape, roots, and yig. 358. Egg of 

may survive for several days without any grapevine root- 
food. Upon reaching a root the larva bores ^, , ? 
^ ° greatly enlarged. 

through the outer bark and then makes an (After Brooks.) 
irregular burrow in the softer parts of the 
bark, which may encircle the root several times. As the bur- 
rows grow larger they run with the grain of the wood, and as 
they are enlarged with the growth of the larva, only the outer 
bark is left on roots of one-half inch or less in diameter, the interior 
being tunnelled out and filled with the castings of the larva. Most 
of the larvae feed a foot or so from the base of the vine, though one 
was found on a root nine feet from the base. The larvae bore in the 
roots until the second fall, when they are about full grown and 
make cells or hibernacula, thinly lined with silk, in which they 
hibernate in the root. The larva becomes full grown the next 
spring and is then U to If inches long, of the general shape 
shown in Fig. 359, yellowish- white, with a small brown head, three 




noo INSMC'C ri'is'i's ov v.wiw, <;aim)I':\' y\Ni) okciiaim) 

pnirs of lirowii I lioiiicic Ic^.s, ami (l\r pairs of aliiloiniiial |)ii»lc^';s. 
Wlicii ii'adv t" I'lipalc I lie larva coiiics near I lie siiilacc ol llic 
i^,,j| ;,||(| ilicrc iii;ik"s a lnii^'li cocoon an nicli or so lon^';, coni|io,sc(| 
,,f (.jiiih ;inil cxcicnK'nl and lincij with silk, and in il I lansroi-ins 




l''i(i. .'{fiU. (Irapcviiic niol-liorcr.s at worK l''ivc Iikicis were feeding mi lliis 
Mcclioii wlicii lakcii I'nmi I lie ground Iwo llnnls ii.ilural si/.-. (I'liiiln 
l.v W Iv iniin.Mcv.) 

lu ;i lirown |Mi|ia willi \illou I. ami;; aiouml lln' ahilonicn. In 
mImmiI lour or li\r weeks I he |in|.a u ri,t;.L' les half way out of the 
cocoon and the moth enier.L'es, leavinL' ih'' i'ni|il\ |iiipal skin 
project in,!' al.ose the surface of the vroiinil. 'I'ln' niol lis eMi('ri!,(' 



iNsi'icis iN.iridoi s TO iiii'; chaiM'; 501 

in l;it,(', .Inly ;i,iii| (•;iily Aii^umI, in Wf.sl, V'ij'^i(ii;i, ;ui(| I lie. i'll,^,n lur. 
laid in ;i lew <\:iys. 'I'Ihih Uic lil'c cycle rc(jiiirc,s I, wo lull ycjM'H 
and larvio of two si/cs ni;i,y l)(' loiind in (,li(; rool.s ;il, ;iiiy rime, 
(!Xcopt during iJu; pupal period, when ;i,ll will Ix; ;iJh)u(, 1i;i,II I,(» 
two-ill in J H f^rowM. 

Control. On ;i,ccoiint of llicir sul)lcf/;i,nc;in li;il»itH it is nuilii 
foHtly impoHHil)l<! to ili^ out the Itocci-H, ;i,s is (ionc with ,^inlil!l^ 
H\)(',r'\('H (•.\ccf)t tor ;i, few valunhle vines. If the Siiippernon^ is 

;i,S immune ;iS luiS heen reporled, it mi;i;llt i,ie l|;;c(| ;is ;i, stock 

throuji,houl Ide South, when; it will thrive, liy ref-o^ni/in^- the 
parent irioths, they may )><• (lestroyfui hy fi,p|)ro;ichin;.' them <|uietly 
wiien !i,t r(!Ht and striking- them (|uickly wit h ;i p;Mldle or IkcihI ;in<l 
many mi^^lit thus he killeil rhuinp ilic fimc I hey ;iic nioil ;iliiin'l;uit. 
liy thorough cultivation in June jukI July ni;in\ of I he c()C()()ii,; 
will ])<'. thrown to tfn; surfucf; or huried so (|c(|)|y lli;it many of 
tlie, pup.'i; will he. d<'stroyed, or the ;mIuIK will he nn;dile to rejicli 
the surface. Willi liher.'d feil ili/,;i I ion, culliviition will slimu 
lato th(; vine to wilhntiuid the injury. I'.rooks luis shov\n lluil 
in Wenf, Virginifi, tlic crr-Hlfd flyciilchcr ( M i/inrrlm:; cninlu:!) 
feeds upon the moths ;iiid m;iy he ;i, h'ictor m the contiol ol I he 
pest. 

The (jrape I<ofjt-wr)rm -^ 

Tlie(|r;),pe l{,o()l,-W(jrm is tin; larva of ;i, small, hairy, cdKiHtmit- 
hrf)w/i heetje, whiefi feeds on iJie Uf)pei' sur(';u;e'H of tfie |e;i,veH, 
r'ating out seri<'S of p;it,ches ()V holes in ch;i,r;i,(;t(!riHti(; ch;iin like 
fe.erlin/;^ markH which afford ii,n cfisily r(!co^ni>cabl(! indienJion of the 
pr(!Hon(;<! of tiie pest, in 1 lie vineyjud. The hirva; d(;vf)ur 1 he smjiljer 
rof)tH and eat out f)its and burrows in the huf;cr roots, ii/id where 
;d)und;ini ni;iy kill the phuits in aye;ir or two, hut more (;o/rifriordy 
lhf;y cause an enf<;ehled ^^rowtli iu\<\ ;i, eonsfjrjuent failure to pro- 
duce profitable crops. Injury has been nujst seve/f; in the ^rjipe belt 

* Fidui vitiritla Wahli. I';irnily Chn/ioiiiflir/ir, Sf!C Qiiairibificc, I.e.; 
Ilarlzfjl, i.e.; M. V. Slirix(;rl)iri<l, I'.iillciin isl, 2i)S, 221, anrl 2;'.:», CxrwW 
Iriiv. Aur. K\p. St;i,; K. 1'. l''<-ll, l'.iillrii,i ]>,). Oflicc SUi.i<: Kril. of .\, Y.; 
I'rcd ,Jr»|itiHi.ii, Hiiilcliri OH, l';irl VI, I'.iircui JMilotuolofy, C, S, Dcpl,. ,\^'j.; 
.lohriHori ari'l lljirniriiir, I'lillcliri H!», Ihitl. 



502 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




Fig. 360. — Grape root-worm {Fidia viticola Walsh): beetles feeding on 
foliage— natural size, and enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



503 



of western New York, Pennsylvania, and northern Ohio, but the 
species occurs generally throughout the Mississippi Valley and 
the Eastern States, and has been reported from California. " The 
insect thrives best in vineyards which are neglected, and in the 
absence of cultivation and timely spra^'ing it is likely to become 




Fig. 361. — The life cycle of the grape root-worm — enlarged and natural size- 
(After Slingerland.) 

a serious pest in any vineyard throughout its range of distribu- 
tion. This is especially the case in light, sand}' soils and in regions 
where grape growing is a considerable industry." A nearly 
related species,* has been known to seriously injure the foliage 
in Texas, but it is not known whether it affects the roots. In 

* Fid la cnna. 



f)04 



INSMCr PKSTS Ol' FARM, (;AR1:)EN and ORCllAHl) 



California, the imported grape I'oot-worm * is somotimos destruc- 
tive, has pi'actically identical habits, and is controlled by the 
same methods. 

The adult beetle is about one-qvuirter inch long, ))rownish In 
cuK)!', and covered witli grayish-white hairs, with a stout bod}' 
and long legs, as shown in Fig. 360. Tli(> iull-grown larva is about 




Vic. .302. — Eggs of the grape root-worm, natural .size as seen on grape oane.s 
above — enlarged below. (.After Slingerland.) 

live-eighths iiu-li long, whitish iu cohn-, and usually i-ests in a curved 
position as shown in Fig. 301. The head is slightly narrower than 
the body and yellowish-brown, as are the well-marked spiracles 
on the side of each segment. 

* Adoxus vitis Fourcroy. A riiuall shining brown or black beetle, one- 
fifth inch long. See Quayle, 1. c. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



505 



Life History. — The adult beetles appear about the close of the 
blooming period, or in late June and early July in the latitude 
of New York, and live for a month or more. They emerge earlier 
on warm, light sandy soils, and later on heavier soils. In a few 
daA's their feeding commences to be noticed on the leaves and the 
females may be found laying their eggs. A female will lay from 
150 to 900 eggs, averaging about 175, most of which are laid 




Fiu. 363.— Portions of three grape roots denuded of their bark and fibrous 
roots by grape root-worms, and part of a similar root taken from a thrifty 
vine showing its normal bark and rootlets. Reduced in size. (After 
Shngerland.) 

during the first two oi- three weeks. The eggs are laid in masses 
of 25 to 40 beneath the old l;)ark or generally over the canes. 
The individual egg is one-twenty-fifth inch long, at first whitish, 
but soon turns yellow, antl tapers at each end. The eggs hatch 
in from nine to twelve da\-s, ^^•ll(>n the young larvjc drop to the 
ground and seek the roots. The >-oung larvnc are only one- 
seventeenth inch long, so that the}- arc able to penetrate the soil. 



506 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

When established on the roots the}' feed freely and grow rapidly, 
becoming nearly full grown by fall. In the fall they descend 
several inches into the soil and make small earthen cells, in which 
they hibernate. In the spring they return to the roots nearer 
the surface, and those not already full grown feed until growth 
is completed. They then make small earthen cells 2 or 3 inches 
below the surface of the ground in which they transform to pupae. 
These cells are easily broken open and the pupae are thus crushed 
or killed by stirring the soil hi cultivation. The pupa, shown 
in Fig. 364, e, is one-quarter to oiu^-third inch long, whitish, with 




Fig. 364. — The tender pupa of the grape root-worm in its earthen cell, enlarged 
natural size at n. (After Slingerland.) 

the head, thorax and tip of the abdomen pinkish, and with spines 
on the head, appendages, and abdomen as illustrated. The pupae 
are most abundant in Xew York during June, the pupal stage 
lasting about two weeks. 

Control. — Extensive experiments made by several investigators 
have shown that the beetles may be very largely destroyed by 
thorough spraying with arsenate of lead just as they appear. 
By applying the poison when they are first noticed feeding they 
may be killed off before many of the eggs are laid, and sprayed 
vineyards have shown a reduction of over 90 per cent of the eggs 
found on untreated vines. Areenate of lead should be applied at 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



507 



the rate of 4 pounds to the barrel as soon as feeding marks 
are found on the foliage, and again a week or ten days later, and 
should be added to the Bordeaux mixture used for the diseases 
of the vine. The spraying must be done with the greatest 
thoroughness, as the beetles dislike the sprayed foliage and will seek 
out that which has been missed. The nozzles on traction outfits 




Fig. 365. — A geared horse-power vineyard sprayer. This is provided with 
a compressed air tank and an extra nozzle on each side directed down- 
ward in order to spray the tops of the vines. (After Quaintance and 
Shear, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

should therefore be arranged so as to hit all parts of the vines (see 
Figs, 365, 366) and the pump should maintain at least 100 pounds 
pressure. With the machines in common use not over 7 or 8 
acres a day may be covered thoroughly, and about 125 gallons 
will be required per acre. If the work is hurried to cover greater 



508 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

acreage, the treatment will usually be less effective. The beetle 
is noticeably less tlcstructive in well-cultivated vineyards, and 
it has been shown that thorough cultivation in early sumni(n- 
Ijreaks up the pupal cells and destroys large numbers of the pup;c. 
Most of the pupse are within 2 or 3 inches of the surface and within 
li or 2 feet from the base of the vine. In the fall the earth should 
be thrown toward the vines to form a ridge along the row, 
so that the larvse will mostly pupate near the surface of this ridge. 















Fig. 360. — A comprcsscd-aii- .sprayer in oijcration, showing proper arrange- 
ment of nozzles for thoroughly spraying grapes. (After Quaintance 
and Shear, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

The next spring, when'most of the larvifi have entered the pui)al 
stage, this ridge should be thrown away from the vines, thus 
exposing the pupie. A " horse-hoe " commonly used in vine- 
yards is useful in this work, but a hand-hoe will need to be used 
to throw the earth away from the immediate base of the vine. 
The soil should then be kept well stirred by cultivation at frequent 
intervals, all of which is merely part of good practice, independent 
of the control of the root-worm. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



509 



The Grapecane Gall-maker * 

The Grapecane Gall-maker is a small reddish-brown snout- 
beetle about one-eighth incii long, which lays its eggs in the canes, 




Fir.. 3G7. — The grapeeano gall-iiuikci {AiHpeloglypUr setinf^tri-i Lee): (t, 
adult from above; b, same, side view; c, larva, side view; d, pupa; e, 
section of vine showing galls— all enlarged. (After F. M. Webster); 
/, section of cane showing newly made wound and egg in lower chamber — 
natural size. (After Brooks . ) 

giving rise to galls about twice the diameter of the cane and 1 oi- 
1| inches long, with a deep scar in one side. It has been noted 

* A m pelogly pter sesostris Lee. Family Curculionidce. See Fred E. Brooks, 
Bulletin 119, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F.'M. Webster, Bulletin 116, Ohio Agr. 
Exp. Sta. 



510 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

as injurious in Ohio and West Virginia, and from the records 
seems to be generally distributed over the Eastern States, but is 
by no means a serious pest. 

Life History. — The adult beetles appear in May and are gone by 
early July. They feed sparingly on the vine, making little pits in 
the tendrils, in the buds or bark of new canes or in the midribs on 
the under side of the leaves. The females soon lay their eggs and 
make the egg scars. These cause the galls and constitute practically 
the only injury to the vine. The eggs are laid just above a joint and 
beyond the outermost fruit, so that the injury does not interfere 
with the crop. A female eats out a small hole with her snout, 
in it lays a small yellowish-white egg, and fills up the hole with 
fibers scraped off from the surface of the cane. She then makes 
another hole immediately a]:)ove this, but merely places a drop of 
liquid in it and then fills it up with fibers in the same manner. 
Eight to a dozen holes are thus made in a row and filled, ^'ery 
soon this wound causes a swelling of the vine, but the gall does 
not reach full size for six or eight weeks. On vines producing 
dark-colored fruit, the wood about the wound takes on a purplish 
color. The galls seem to have but little effect on the growth and 
vigor of the vine, except that the canes are more readily broken 
Ijy the wind or in pruning. The larva is a little yellowish-white, 
footless grub about two-fifths inch long, which feeds about the 
egg-chamber and then burrows in the pith. It becomes full 
grown in eight to ten weeks, when it pupates within the burrow; 
the beetle emerges in late August, and hibernates over winter. 

As the scar in the side of the gall where the eggs were deposited 
remains open, a very large proportion of the larvae are sul)- 
sequently para.sitized by various chalcis, and tachina-flies, which 
will probably prevent the insect ever becoming much of a pest. 

Control. — The galls may be cut out and burned during July 
or August without any injury to the crop, as they occur beyond 
the fruit, and at that time will contain the larvae or pupae. As the 
beetles feed on the foliage and new growth it is probable that 
l)ut little damage will result in ^-ineyards well sprayed with arsen- 
icals for other pests. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



511 



The Grapecane Girdler * 

This beetle is very similar to the last except that it is black 
in color. Its native food-plant is the Virginia creeper, which 
it has deserted in West Virginia, and occasionally elsewhere, 
to attack grape. The species seems to occur generally through 
the Central and Eastern States. 

Life History. — The life history is almost identical with that 
of the preceding species, the habit of the species differing only 
in the manner of oviposition. The eggs are laid in late May and 





Fig. 368. — The grapecane girdler (A in iKior/lypttr aler Lee): a, egg; b, larva; 
c, pupa; d, beetle — all enlarged. (After Brooks.) 

early June. In laying the egg, the female deposits it in the same 
manner as does the previous species, and then instead of placing a 
series of holes in a row she makes them in a ring around the cane, 
only the first one containing an egg. She then goes to the next joint 
above and makes a series of holes around it, completely severing 
it, so that it hangs b}' a shred and soon drops. The little larva 
feeds in the pith of the joints on either side of the egg pvuicture, 
and these two joints die and drop to the ground. The larva 
becomes full grown in about a month and changes to a pupa in 

* Atnpeloglypter ater Lee. Family Curculionidce. See Fred E. Brooks, 
Bulletin 119, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



512 INSECT PESTR OF FARM. GAKDKN AM) ORCHARD 




Fig. 369. — Work of the grapecanc girdlcr. (After Brooks,) 



^' i^.^ 







Fig. 370. — Work of tlic j!;rai)ccane f;;irdkT. (Aftt-r I5rook.s.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 513 

its burrow soon after the dead section drops, first filling the burrow 
with little pellets of fibers. Two weeks later the adult beetle 
emerges, appearing during late summer. The whole life c3'cle 
thus requires sixty-five to seventy days. The beetles hibernate 
ovei' winter. 

'Control. — The injured canes are quite conspicuous in early 
summer and by cutting them off a few inches below the egg scars 
the eggs and larva? may be removed and destroj^ed. Brooks 
is of the opinion that the beetles will be largely destroyed in vine- 
yards thoroughly sprayed with ;u-senicals for other grape insects. 

The Grape Cane-borer * 

Dui'ing the spring young gi'upc slioots sometimes suddenly break 
off or droop and die, and if exaniined a small hole will be found just 
al)Ove the base of the withei'ed shoot, with a l)urrow leading 
from it into the main stem. In this ])urrow will be found a small 
brown beetle, a half inch long (Fig. 371, a), which is the cause 
of the injuiy. It has been sometimes called the apple twig-borer 
on account of the similar injury which it does to apple twigs, 
and it also attacks pear, peach, plum, forest and shade trees and 
ornamental shrubs, but it is particularly destructive to the grape. 
Its injur}' is most noticed in Avinter and early spring, and fre- 
quently results in killing all the new growth antl sometimes 
the entire vine. Injur}' has been most severe in the States l^order- 
ing the Mississippi fi'om Iowa southward, where it is one of the 
most serious insect pests of the vine, and though the beetle occui's 
eastward to the coast it rarely does much damage farther east. 

" It breeds in dying wood, such as large prunings, diseasetl 
canes, and also in dying or drying wood of most shade and fruit 
trees. It has also been found by the writer [IMarlatt] breeding 
very abundantly in roots of upi'ooted maples and in diseased 
tamarisk stems. In old, dr}' wood it will not breed, so far as 
known, nor in vigorous live growth, but seems to need the dying 

* Amphicerus bicaudatus Say. I'ainily Plinidce. See V. Ti. Marlatt, 
Farmers' Bulletin 70, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



514 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

and partially drying conditions mentioned. The insect has l)ut 
one brood j'early. The beetles matui-e for the most part in tlie 
fall, and generally remain in their larval Imi-rows until the follow- 
ing spring. A few may leave the burrows in the fall and con- 




FiG. 371. — The giape cane-borer iAmphicerus bicaudatus Say): a, beetle, 
back and side views; b, pupa; c, larva, with feet enlarged; d, burrow in 
apple twig made by adult; e, larval gallery in tamarisk, with pupa in 
cell at end; /, injury to young shoot and cane showing entrance of beetle 
near /, and the characteristic wilting and new growth — all much enlarged 
except d, e,f. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

Struct others in the twigs of apple or other plants in which to 
hibernate. In the spring, however, they begin their destructive 
work early, burrowing into the axils of the grape and occasionally 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 515 

also into other plants. This is undoubtetlly parti}- for food, but 
seems largely malicious, for it certainly has nothing to do with 
egg-laying. . . . The eggs are laid chiefl}- in May or April in 
its southern range, and the larvic develop during summer, trans- 
forming to beetles antl pupte in the fall. On the Pacific coast 
a closely allied, but somewhat larger species (Amphicerus puncfi- 
pennis Lee.) . . . probably has similar . . . habits ..." 

Control. — All tliseased wood and prunings should be removed 
in late spring, thus destroying the material in which the larvse 
develop. If this is neglected and the beetles appear in the vine- 
yard, the only means of stopping their depredations is to cut 
out by hand the affected parts and destroy the beetles. On 
warm days the beetles may sometimes be collected while running 
over the vines. 

The Grapevine Flea-beetle * 

When the grape buds ai-e swollen in the spring they are often 
attacked by numbers of little blue or greenish beetles which eat 
out or entirely consume them. When abundant these little beetles 
may destroy all the buds on a vine, thus greatly retarding the 
leafing out or even occasionall}- killing the plant. The beetle 
is about one-fifth inch long, of robust shape, and possesses the 
thick thighs characteristic of flea-beetles, which enable it to jump 
a considerable distance when disturbed. It is common through- 
out the States east of the 100th meridian and nearly related 
species do similar damage on the Pacific Coast. (See Quayle, 
I.e.) The wild grape is undoubtedly the natural food-plant of 
the species, though it is occasionally found on plum, apple, pear, 
quince, blue beech and elm. 

Life History. — Aftei- feeding a few days the female Ijeetles 
commence to lay their eggs in cracks of the bark at the base of 
the buds, or in any crevice or in the cavity eaten out of the bud 
by the beetle, or sometimes on the foliage. The eggs are a long 

* Haltica chalybea 111. Family Chrysomelidce. See Quaintance, I.e.; 
Hartzell. I.e.; and M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin 157. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. 

Sta. 



olG INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

oval shape, one-fortieth inch long, and of a dark straw-yellow 
color. The eggs hatch just as the young leaves are expanding; 
and upon them the young larvic feed greedily. The larva3 feed 
on the upper surface of the leaf, eating out irregular holes through 
the skin and into the soft tissue, and become full grown in three 
or four w.M'ks. The young larvae are a very dark brown, but 
when grown they are one-third inch long and a dark yellowish- 
lirown, marked b^- regular rows of blackish tubercles each of 




Vic. 372. — The grapevine fleu-beetle {Haltica chalybea HI.): «, adult willi 
hind leg at riglit furthei- enlarged; b, larva, much enlargeil; c, beetles 
and laiv;e on foliage — natural size; d, beetle feeding on bud; e, diseased 
beetles. (After Marlatt, T^. S. Dept. Agr.) 

which bear- a small hair. The head, anal and prothoracic 
l)lat('s and legs arc black. The fuli-gi'own larva drops to the 
ground and ;iu inch or two beneath the suifac(> makes a small 
cell in which il transforms to a white pupa, fi'om which the adult 
beetle emerges in one or two weeks. In Xew York there is b\it 
a single generation, but more than one generation ma}' occur in 
tlie South. I'pon emerging the beetles feed on the grape and 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



517 



other plants, doing no particular damage, and enter hibernation 
in the fall. 

Control. — Where vineyards are regularly sprayed with arscn- 
icals there will be but little trouble with the flea-beetles, as the 
grubs are very easily destroyed on the foliage. In negieetcd 
vineyards the beetles often become very abundant and may Ijc 
quite destructive in such locahties. Where it is necessary to 
combat the beetles to prevent injury to the buds, close watch 
should be kept for them and the buds should 1m' thoioughly 




Fig. 373. — Eggs of the grapevine Hea-beetle, natural si/A' ;i,( u, and enlarged 
at b. (After Slingerland.) 

sprayed at once, using 8 ])0unds of arsenate of lead per barrel. 
Usually this will need to Ije applied just as the buds are becoming 
well swollen, and nuist be applied promptly and thoroughly, 
as the beetles work quickly and a day's delay may mean the 
destruction of the buds. In a small vineyard or on a few vines 
the beetles nui}' be eolleeted 1)}' hand in the earl}' morning when 
they are sluggish, or ma}' be jarred to canvas-covered fran)e^^ 
kept saturated with kerosene placed beneath the vines. 



518 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



The Rose-chafer * 



About the liiuc the grape is in bloom, iniiiien.se swarms of 
the common Rose-chafers or Rose-bugs often appear, covering the 
plants, feeding on the blossoms, later attacking the young fruit 
and foliage, and sometimes eating the leaves quite bare except 
the larger veins. The chief damage, however, is done l)y destroy- 
ing the blossoms or newly set fruit, or by so injuring the young 




Fig. 374. — The rose chafer (Macrodadylus subspinosus Fab.): a, beetle; 
b, larva; c, d, mouth-parts of same; e, pupa — all much enlarged; /, 
beetles at work on foliage — natural size. (After Marlatt. U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

berries that they are misshapen and worthless. The beetle is 
about one-third inch long, of a light-brownish color, covered 
with numerous lighter hairs, and has very long spiny legs, which 
always seem to be in its way and make it most awkward and 
clumsy. It is a very general feeder, being conmion on roses, 

* M acrodactylus subspinosus Fab. Family Scaraboeidoe. See Quaintance, 
I.e.; Hartzell, I.e.; J. B. Smith, BuHetin 82, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.; and 
Fred Johnson, Bulletin 97, Part III, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 519 

from which the common name is received, and also on such orna- 
mentals as Spiraea and Deutzia, while it frequently injures the 
blossoms of apple, plums, cherries and peaches, and when very 
abundant will attack various vegetables, grasses, and grains. 
The species occurs commonly from Canada to Virginia and Tennes- 
see and westward to Colorado, and in Texas and Oklahoma, but 
seems to do but little damage west of the Mississippi, being most 
injurious in the Middle States. It is particularly destructive 
where there are areas of light sandy soil grown up in grasses and 
weeds, upon the roots of which the larvie feed. 

Life History. — After feeding three or four weeks the beetles 
suddenly disappear. During the middle of June, in New Jersey, 
the females lay from 12 to 20 eggs, d(^positing them in the soil 
singly. These hatch in two to three weeks and the larvae feed 
on the roots of various grasses and possibly weeds and other 
vegetation. They become nearly full grown by fall, when they 
go below the frost line and hibernate over winter. The larva 
looks very much like a small white grul), which it closely resembles 
in every way, and is' about three-quarters inch long when full 
grown (Fig. 374, J>). In the spring the grubs come near the sur- 
face of the soil and enter the pupa stage, which lasts from ten to 
thirty days according to the temperature. There is but one genera- 
tion a 3'ear, and the injury is done by the beetles during the three 
or four weeks they are abroad. 

Control. — When the beetles are very abundant the only 
satisfactor}^ method of control is to pick them by hand or jar 
them from the vines onto frames from which they may be 
collected. In jarring, an umbrella-shaped frame covered with 
canvas or, preferabty, oilcloth, which slopes to a can of kerosene 
at the bottom, is often used, being somewhat similar to that used 
for the plum curculio. This is held under the vines and they are 
sharph' jarred or shaken, when the beetles will drop to the frame, 
particularly in early morning. Handpicking into a can of kero- 
sene and watei- is probably the most common method, however. 
Where the beetles are not excessively abundant they have been 
controlled in some cases by thorough spraying with arsenate 



520 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

of lead, 5 to 10 pounds per barrel, preferably applied with Bor- 
. deaux mixture, and recent experiments of the N. Y. Agricultural 
Experiment Station with 5 pounds of arsenate of lead and 12 
pounds of glucose per barrel gave excellent results. The numbers 
of the pest may also be much reduced by keeping down the grass 
and weeds in the vineyard, and particularly on light sandy soils 
adjoining lands should be broken up and cultivated in annual 
crops as far as possible, thus reducing the breeding grounds of the 
pest. ■ By bagging the grapes as soon as the fruit is set the clusters 
may be protected from this as well as other pests and diseases 
wherever such treatment is practicable. 

The Grape Leaf-hopper * 

Wherever the grape is grown in the United States and Canada, 
tlie foliage^ will l)e found more oi' less infested with the small 
Leaf-hoppers, often locally called " thrips," which feed and breed 
on the under surface of the leaves during the season. By late 
summci' th(> vines may l)e covered with the hoppers, which will 
fly off in clouds when disturbed, and ex-eiy year there is serious 
iujui'y in various localities. The injury is done by the little 
iioppers sucking out the juices of the leaves through their tube- 
like mouth-parts. A small white spot first appears around the 
feeding puncture, due to the loss of chlorophyll in the leaf, and 
when the punctures have l:)ecome numerous the leaf has a varie- 
gated appearance. As the injury inci'cases the l(>af yellows and 
(iiiailx' dries up and falls to the ground. \Miei'e it becomes 
general, this injury reduces both the quantity anil quality of the 
I'l'uit. The post is an insidious one, as it is not usually noticed 
until it becomes vciy abundant in late summer, by which time 
most of the injury has i>een done and it is too late to prevent it. 
For this reason its control has been very generally' neglected by 
grape growers with a consequent loss the cause of which is often 
unsuspected. 

* Typfilocyba comef:>^ay. FamWy Jassidce. See Quaintance, I.e.; Hartzell, 
I.e.; Quayle, I.e.; and M. V. Sliugerland, Bulletin 215, Cornell Univ. Agr. 
Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



521 



The atlult hoppers are about one-eighth inch long and the 
wings are prettily marked with yellow and red as shown in l''ig. 
375. " In summer the young and adult insects are light yellowish 
in color, but before going into hibernation, the eyes of the adults 
darken and the peculiar yellow spots on the wings change to an 
orange red, thus giving the hibernating adults a general reddish 
appearance. These darker markings on the adults vary so much 
that nine different varieties are now recognized, two of which are 
represented at 6 and c, in Fig. 375. Often several of the \'a]ieties 




Fig. 375.— Grape leaf-hopper (Typhlocyba couwh): a, adult tVinalc; /», adult 
male; c, another form of the species, showing variation in markings; 
d, newly-hatched nymph; e, last stage nymph; /, appearance of injured 
leaf; g, cast pupa skins — o, e, much enlarged; g, less enlarged; /, reduced. 
(From Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

may be found together on the same vines, but usiuilh' one color 
form largely predominates." The nymphs are a light yellowish- 
green color with lemon-yellow stripes on each side of the body. 
They pass through five molts before becoming adidts, the \\iiig- 
pads gradually getting larger in the later stages. Xo ^•(M•y similar 
insects are common on the grape, so that the pest is readily recog- 
nized. 

Life Histo)-y. — The adult hoppers hibernate over winter under 
leaves, grass, or trash in or near the vineyard, in neighboring 



522 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

woods, along ditches or fences, etc. They emerge about May 1 
in New York and at first feed on whatever succulent foliage ma}^ 
be available. By the time the grape foliage appears they have 
mostly emerged and infest the vineyards. These hibernating 
hoppers feed and breed on the lower leaves, disappearing about the 
time the first young become adult. After a few weeks the females 
commence egg-laying, which continues for about two months. 
The eggs arc laid just beneath the surface of the leaf in groups 
of from six to nine, or singly, and as they are but one-thirty-fifth 
inch long and almost transparent, they are scarcely visible save 
for the eyes of the embryonic nymphs. The eggs hatch in nine to 
fourteen days. The young nymphs feed like the adults, at first 
on the lower leaves, but soon spread to all parts of the plant. 
In New York the}' become grown in thirty to thirty-five days, 
and there is but one full generation a year, with a partial second 
generation, most of the individuals of which probably do not 
mature befoi-e frost. Feeding continues until cool weatliei', when 
the adults enter hibernation. In Colorado, New Mexico and 
California and probably throughout the South, there are two full 
generations a year. In California, according to Quayle, the 
nymphs from eggs laid b}' the hibernating hoppers appear by the 
middle of May and the following generation of nymphs about 
the middle of July. 

Control. — Cleaning up all fallen leaves and ti'ash in tiie vine- 
yard during the winter, or plowing it under in the early spring, 
will reduce the number of hibernating hoppers, and it has been 
observed that they are much less numerous in vineyards where 
clean culture is practiced. The ])urning over of adjacent meadows, 
wood lots and fence rows will also be advisable where practicable. 

In California, where the vines ai'e not trellised, a hopper-cage, 
which has been fully described by (Quayle, I.e., is successfully 
used for catching the hoppers before they commence to oviposit 
in the spring. In the East this could not be used, and Professor 
Slingerland has shown that the hibernated hoppers may be caught 
on sticky shields before they oviposit. " A light Avooden frame 
is made 7 or S feet long by 4 feet high. To the crosspiece at the 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 523 

bottom, which sliouhl be up from the ground about a foot, are 
fastened several stiff wires of the shape of a hayrake tooth. These 
are fastened so that the points curve inward and downward to 
the ground at the base of the plants when the shield is held in 
place beside th(^ vines. The whole framework, including the 
wires, is covered with oilcloth, which is coated with a sticky sub- 
stance, made !)}• using melted resin, 1 (juart, and castor oil, 1 
pint." Tanglefoot might be used instead. The hoppers are on 
the lower leaves early in the season, so that the frames need not 
be high, and it is at that season that it is important to catch 
them. The vines will need to be gone over frequently, a man 
carrying a shield on either side and jarring the vines so that the 
hoppei's will fiy off and be caught on the shields. The young 
hoppei's ma}' be killed by spraying with wdiale-oil soap, 1 pound to 
10 gallons, 10 per cent kerosene emulsion, or tobacco extract. 
In California a resin spray composed of 1 pound of resin and one- 
quarter pound of lye dissolved in 15 gallons of water is used. This 
w^ork must be done with the gi'eatest thoroughness, as the hoppers 
must be hit to be killed. Underspray nozzles must be used and 
handled by men who will cover the under surface of all the leaves. 
This cannot be done by fixed nozzles, unless very high pressure 
and many nozzles are used. The work is necessarily slow and 
expensive and should be commenced as soon as the young 
appear, when they may be more easily destroyed and when there 
is less foliage to be sprayed. Several applications will usually 
be necessary. 

The Grape Leaf-folder =<= 

Very frecjuently grape leaves are found folded or rolled 
together, wath the interior surface more or less skeletonized, 
from which a slender larva will wriggle out and fall or hang 
suspended on a silken thread. The Grape Leaf-folder occurs 
throughout the United States, and though usually not injurious, 
sometimes becomes abundant enough to do serious damage. 

* Desmia funeralis Hiibner. Family Pyralidoe. See Quaintance, and 
Qiiayle, I.e. 



524 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The moth is black with white spots on tlie wings, and bands across 
the abdomen, as shown in Fig. 37G. Tlie larva is about an inch 
long, of a greenish-white color, with head and prothoracic shield 
light brown, and with brown spots on the sides of the first two 
thoracic segments. 

Life History. — " There are two broods each year in the more 
Northern States and three or possibly more in the South. The 
insect winters in the pupal stage in the folded and fallen leaves, 
the moths appearing in the spring shortly after the foliage puts 




Fig. 376. — The grape leaf-folder (Desmia funeralis Hiibn.): a, male moth and 
enlarged antenna of same; b, female moth; c, larva; d, head and thoracic 
segments of same enlarged; e, pupa; /, tip of pupa — enlarged; g, grape 
leaf folded by larva. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

out, and the eggs are })laced in small pat dies here and there 
on the vine. Upon hatching, the young larvie attack the 
foliage, folding the leaves as stated. Mr. Johnson has ol)served 
that the larva? of the fii-st Ijrood uniy attack l)unches of grape 
blossoms and young fruit in a way similar to the grape-berry 
moth. In three or four weeks the larva? are full grown and 
transform to pupa? Avithin the folded leaves, moths emerging 
eight or ten days later. By midsummer and fall the insects 
become quite abundant, and in badly infested vineyards the 
folded leaves are everywhere in evidence and are quite con- 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 525 

spiciious from the color of the lower surface. In the fall the 
larva pupate in the folded leaves and pass the winter in these 
on the ground."— Quaintance. 

Control. — Where but a few larvae occur they may be crushed 
by hand, and if this is done with the first brood it will greatly 
reduce the numbers later in the season. Vineyards sprayed 
with arsenicals will l)e protected, as the young larvse will be killed 
])efore they fold the leaves. By collecting and burning the fallen 
leaves or plowing them under deeply, many of the hibernating 
pupse may be destroyed. 

Hawk-moth Larvae * 

Several species of Hawk-moth or Sphinx-moth larvae are com- 
monly found on the vine. Most of them are widely distributed 
lhrougho\it the coimtrj'and feed on wild grape and Virginia creeper. 
Usually they are not numerous enough to do serious damage, 
and as they strip a branch at a time, they are readily seen and 
may be destroyed before much injury is done. Occasionally, 
however, one or two larvae may entirely strip a young vine, and 
exceptionally the larvae appear in considerable numbers on old 
vines, stripping them bare of foliage. They are large, smooth- 
bodied larvie, 2 to 4 inches long, and may be distinguished 
from those of other families of moths by the strong horn on the 
next to the last segment, which has given them the common name 
of horn-worm^. In many species, this horn is present only in the 
first one or two stages of the larva, disappearing with the next 
molt and being replaced by a briglit eye-spot, as shown in Fig. 377, 
c, d. The life history of the various species is much the same, 
except that some have only one, while others have two genera- 
tions a year in the North, though most all probably have two 
generations in the South. They hibernate as large dark-brown 
pupae, 3 or 4 inches below the surface of the ground, and 
the moths emerge in spring. The moths are particularly attracted 
to petunias, and may often be caught hovering over them at 

♦Family Sphingidce. See O. Lugger, 4th Report State Ent. Minn.; Ida 
M. Eliot and Caroline M. Soule, "Caterpillars and their Moths." (N. Y., 1902). 



526 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

night. The eggs are laid on tlie foliage, usually singly, and the 
larvae hatch in a few days. They eat ravenously, and will consume 
an enormous number of leaves within a few davs. Usualh' the 




Fig. 377. — ^The achemon sphinx (Pholiis achemon Dru.): a, moth; 6, egg; c, 
young larva; d, mature larva; c, pupa; /, parasitized larva — all natural 
size. (After Marlatt, U. S. Dei)t. Agi-.) 

coloration of the huvie changes nioi-e oi* less as the}' grow, so 
that when full gi-own they are different from the younger stages. 
When there are two generations, the second generation of larvie 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE , .527 

will appear in .late July, but whether one or two generations occur, 
tlic larvic maturing in late summer transform to pupae which 
hibernate. 

Control. — I^ijuall}' the work of the larva> is so conspicuous and 
they arc so easily found that they may be controlled by hand- 
picking. Where the vineyards are sprayed regularly for other 
pests there will be but little trouble with, these larvie, as they will 
be killed while young. 

The Achemon Sphinx.* This is one of the most conunon 
species on the grape. The young larva is a light- green color with 
a long reddish-brown horn which becomes shorter as the larva 
grows and finally disappears and is replaced by a large polished 
e3'e-spot. The mature larva is about 3^ inches long, and varies 
in color from straw-color to reddish-brown. Along the sides are 
six diagonal cream-coloretl spots, on the second to seventh abdom- 
inal segments inclusive. The body is much wrinkled and dotted 
with small spots, dark on the back and lighter on the sides. The 
head and first two thoracic segments are small and are retracted 
into the metathorax when at rest. Just before pupation the 
larva becomes a pink or crimson color. The moth has a wing 
expanse of 3 inches and is brownish-gray, variegated Avith light 
brown, and deep brown spots; the hind wings are pink, with a 
dark shade across the middle, still darker spots below this, and 
a broad gray band behind. The body is reddish-gray with tri- 
angular brown patches at the base of the wings, which are edged 
with white. 

The Pandorus Sphinx. f This nearly related species is also 
common on the vine, but rarely does much damage. The wings 
expand 4 to 4^ inches, and are a light, olive color, mixed Avith 
gray, marked with patches of dai'ker olive green, and with portions 
of a rosy hue, especially on the hind-wings. The bod}' is light 
greenish-brown marked with dark olive patches. The larva is 
ver}' similar to that of the last species, but has only five rather 
oval cream-colored spots on the sides of the third to seventh 
abdominal segments. 

* Pholus achemon Dm. t Pholus pandorus Hbn. 



528 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The CiRape-vine Hog Caterpillar.* This is one of the most 
common sphinx larvae on grape and ^'irg•inia creeper. The grown 
larva is 2 inches long, of a green color, covered with small yellow 
dots or granulations. Along the sides of the body are seven 
oblique yellowish stripes margined behind with a darker green. 
A white stripe with a deep green margin extends from behind 
the head to the horn, on either side of the back, and along the 
middle are a series of seven spots, varying in color from red to 
pale lilac and each set in a patch of pale yellow. Frequently, 
especially in the second generation, si)ecimens are found which arc 




Fig. 37<S. — 'I'he grapevine hog-caterpillar moth {A lupeluphuyd nijjron Cram). — 
natural size, (.\ft.er Lugger). 

a light pinkish instead of green and are nuirked with dark(>r shades 
of red and brown so that the}' ma\' easih' be mistaken foi" another 
species. The wings of the moth expand 2^ inches ami are long 
and narrow. The fore-wings are olive green, crossed by bands 
of greenish-gray, while the hind-wings arc dull red shading to 
greenish-gray next to the bo(l\-. Th(> body is pale green, Avith 
the head and shoulders deep oliv(> green. 

The AVhite-lined Sphinx. f This species has a long list of 
food-plants, the larvic fe(>ding and multiplying on purslane, 
chickweed and other weeds, and then attacking various crops, 
among which is the grape. (See p. 247). They are about 3^ 

* Ampclophaga myron Cram. f Deilephila lincata Fab. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



529 



inches long and quite variable in color, some being yellowish-green 
with black eye-spots along each side of the back and with faint 
blackish stripes, while others are black with yellowish spots, as 
shown in Fig. 379. The moth is shown natural size. The fore- 
wings are an olive color with a pale buff stripe across the middle, 




Fig. 379. — The white-lined sphinx (Deilephila lineata Fab.): a, nioth; h, 
pale larva; c, dark form of larva; d, pupa — all natural size. (After 
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agi-.) 

and are margined with gray, and the hind-wings are crossed by 
a wide rosy band, the remainder being almost black, except the 
white margin. The thorax is marked with several white lines 
as illustrated, and the abdomen is greenish olive spotted with 
white and black. 



530 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

Abbot's Sphinx.* This caterpillar is 2h inches long, varying 
in color from dull yellow to reddish brown. Each segment is 
marked by six or seven transverse black lines, and longitudinally 
with dark-brown streaks. On the next to the last segment is a pol- 
ished l)lack tubercle, or eye-spot, ringed with yellow. The moth is 
a dull chocolate-brown color, with a wing expanse of 2h inches. 
The fore-wings are pale beyond the middle 
and are streaked with darker brown as illus- 
trated. The liintl-wings are yellow with a 
lirown l30i-der. The terminal segments of 




Fig. 380. — Abbott's sphinx {Sphecodina abbottii Swain) and its larva — natural 
size. (After Lugger.) 

the abdomen bear tufts of scales on either side, making the 
abdomen appear truncated instead of pointed, as in most sphinx 
moths. 

The Grape-berry Moth j 

The larva^ of the Grape-bei'iy Moth are the most common 
cause of wormy grapes. The first generation of larvtie web together 
the grape clusters before the blossoms open or soon after 
the grapes are set, and feed upon the clusters. Later the larvse 
bore into the green and ripening fruit, producing purplish spots 
resembling the appearance of injury by the black rot. The 
berries decay from the work of the larvae and from the entrance 

* Sphecodina abbottii Swain. 

■\ Polychrosix viteana Clem. Family TortricidcB. See Quaintance, I.e.; 
Hartzell, I.e.; M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin 223, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; 
and Gossard and Houser, Circular ti3, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



531 



of fungous diseases. The insect occurs throughout the United 
States, but has been particularly injurious in the Chatauciua, N. Y., 




Fig. 381. — American grape-berry moth, enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 

Erie, Pa., and Northern Ohio grape belts. So far as known the 
grape is the only food-plant and the species is a native one, though 
its habits are very similar to a r 
nearly related European species. 
The adult is a little purplish- 
brown moth, with wings expand- 
ing not quite one-half inch, and 
shaded with brownish markings 





Fu;. 3S2.— The work of the grape-berry moth; infested cluster and single 
berry opened to show larva at work — enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 

as shown in Fig. 381. The ground color is lilaceous or leaden- 
blue and the spots are dark brown. 



532 



INSECTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



Life History. — The moths appear in the spring as the shoots 
of the grape are pushing out, and continue to emerge for some 
weeks. Tlic earlier ones lay their eggs on the blossom clusters, 
while the later ones deposit them on the young grapes. The 
minute flat, scah^-like eggs are stuck to the surface of the stems 
or berries, and look like small glistening, whitish spots. The 
little larva? hatching from them feed on the blossoms and small 




Fig. 38.3.— Grapc-lx'rry moth caterpillars, enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 

berries, webbing the clusters together, and might do much more 
damage than the later generations were it not that they are much 
fewer in number, there being a great mortality of the insects over 
winter. The lai'vie become fidl grown in about three weeks. 
The mature larva is about three-eighths inch long, varying in 
color from dark greenish to daik purplish, with a light-brown 
head and black thoracic shield. The body is covered with 
numerous faintly outlined darker spots, from which arise whitish 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 533 

hairs, as shown in Fig. 383. The larva cuts out a piece of a leaf on 
three sides, folds it over and fastens the free edge to the leaf with 
silk. The fold is then lined with a thin layer of silk, making a 
thin cocoon in which it transforms to a light greenish-brown pupa, 
from which the moth emerges twelve to fourteen days later. 
The moths of the second and later generations place their eggs 
on the berries and the larvse bore into them and feed on the pulp 
and seeds. In New York the moths of the second generation 
appear in early July and tlu> second generation of larva? occurs 




Fig. 3S4. — Grape leaf showing focoou.s in tlic making and finished by grape- 
berry moth caterpillars — natural size. (After Slingerland.) 

during July and August. In Xcw York those larva> of the second 
generation which mature l)(>for(> mid-August puj^iite and givc^ 
rise to a third generation, while those nuituring later transform 
to pupae, but hibernate. Often there is nearly a complete thii-d 
brood in that latitude, and further south tluMc arc undoubtedly 
at least three generations. The winter is passed in the pu])al 
stage in the cocoons, which l)reak off from the fallen leaves. 

Control. — Infested berries should be picked off both to destroy 
the larvie and to prevent the spreading of fungous diseases. Plow- 



534 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

ing under the fallen leaves either in fall or early spring should 
result in burying many of th(> pupa^ so as to prevent the escape 
of the moths, and is good practice for other grape pests. The 
principal i-eliance should be placcnl uj)on spraying with arsenate 
of lead, 8 pounds j)ei- bari-el, or one-half pound of Paris green, 
applied wit h Boi'deaux mixture, to which a soap " sticker " 
should be added (see p. 4(5) to nuike the mixture more adhesive 
to the bei'ries. The first spraying should be made before the 
blossoms open, to catch the early larva'; the second should be 
made as the grapes finish blooming; and the third, early in July. 
The addition of the " sticker " is most important in the last 
spraying, when the beri'ies are })artly grown. The spra}' must be 
applied with sufficient nunibei- of nozzles and pressure to penetrate 
the foliage and cover the clusters thoroughly. In a small home 
vineyard the clusters might be protected by bagging them as 
soon as th(^ fruit is set. 

The Grape Curculio * 

The larvje of the Grape Curculio feed on the pulp and seeds of 
the berries, causing wormy grapes, much as do those of the berry- 
moth. The larvte may be readily distinguished, for those of the 
curculio are white, footless grubs, while those of the berry-moth 
are greenish, with well-developed legs, and are quite agile, wriggling 
away cjuickly when disturlx'd. The adult curculio is a small, 
brown, robust, snout-beetle about one-tenth inch long, and 
nearly as broad. It is very difficult to see, looking like a l)it of 
dirt or tlu> excreta of some of the larger caterpillars common on 
the vine. It is common from Arkansas to Minnesota eastward 
to New York and North Carolina. It has been paiticularl>' in- 
jurious in West Virginia, and seems to be most harmful in that 
latitude. 

Life History. — The l)eetles hibei-nate over winli r iu or near 
the vineyards, especially along the edge of woo( Hands. They 

* Craponius inaequalU Say. Family Curculionidce. See Quaintance, 
I.e., and Fred E. Brooks, Bulletin 100, W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 



535 



appear in the spring about the time the grapes blossom and feed 
upon the foHage for three or four weeks until the berries are about 




Fig. 385. — The grape curculio (Craponius incequalis Say): a, beetle; b, head 
of same from side; d, larva from above; e, same from below; /, pupa — 
all iiiucli (■nlaifi;('(l. (After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

one-fourth gi'owii. The beetles cut small characteristic holes in 
the leaves, aiul this hal)it of feeding on the foliage so long makes 
it possible to kill them with arsenicals before oviposition is com- 



^ 






>.fj^'-k^^ 




Fig. 387. — Grape curcuho larvse — 
natural size. (After Brooks.) 



Fic. 386. — The grape curculio 
in act of egg-laying — natural 
size ; e, showing position 
of egg in grape — enlarged. 
(After Brooks.) 

menced. In West Virginia the females begin egg-laying late 
in June, most of the eggs being laid in early July, but egg 



536 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



laying may continue for eighty-one (lays, during which time a 
female will lay an average of 257 eggs. The female excavates 
a small cavity in the berry in which the egg is placed and hatches 
in four to six days. Infested berries often show a purplish spot 
around the egg-puncture. The larva bores in the pulp and in 






Fig. 388. — Grapes showing egg-punctures of grape curculios. (After Brooks.) 

three or four days reaches the seed, which is then devoured. The 
larva becomes full grown in twelve to fifteen days, when it eats 
its way out of the beri-y and drops to the ground in search of a 
suital)le place to pupate. The mature laiva is wliite, al.'out one- 
third inch long, tapering from the middle of the body toward 
either end, without legs, and clothed with fine short hairs. The 



« s 

/ 









Fig. 389. — Showing the resemblance of the grape curculios at 2 to e.Kcreinent 
of sphinx caterpillars at 1, and mummied grapes at 3. (After Brooks.) 

larva' make small eai'tlien cells under stones, lumps of earth 
or just below the surface of tlie soil, and in them transform to 
pupa?, from which the beetles enieige in eighteen to nineteen days. 
Thus the c()mi)lete life cycle fioin egg to adult requires thirty-five 
days. The lii})ei-nating beetles are still abroad when the new 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE 537 

beetles appear, and Brooks states that the average hfe of a beetle 
is one year and nineteen days. Although the beetles of the new 
brood lay some eggs, but few of them develop, and in ^^'est 
Virginia there is practically but one generation, although farthei' 
south a second generation may occur. The beetles feed until 
fall, when they enter hilxMnation. 

Control. — As the beetles feed so long .on the foliage in early 
summer they may be readily killed by spraying with arsenicals 
as advised for the berry-moth and grape root-worm beetle. 
Thorough cultivation in midsummer would doubtless destroy 
some of the pupte in the same manner as in the case of the root- 
worm. Infested fruit may be collected and destroyed as for 
the berry-moth with ccjually good results. Where spraying is 
regularly practiced there prol)abh' will be little need of resort to 
other methods. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 

The San Jose Scale * 

Probably the most serious of all the insect pests of the orchard 
is the San Jose Scale, for it will kill 3'oung trees in two or three 
years, and old trees must be sprayed annuall}" to keep it under 
control. So insidious is the attack of the pest to those unfamiliar 
with it that it has killed many thousands of trees before 
the owners suspected its presence. It may be most readily 
detected on the fruit, which becomes spotted with small red 
circles which foi'm around the scales, but usually the fruit 'is 
not attacked until the tree is badly infested. On the young- 
twigs and along the veins of the leaves a similar reddish discolor- 
ation appears around the scales. The trunk and branches covered 
with scales have a rough grayish appearance, as if they had been 
coated with dai-k ashes. By scraping the surface the soft, juicy, 
yellowish insects will be revealed beneath the covering scales. 
If a singk; f(>male insect be examined it will be found that it is 
covered by a small, circular scale, varying from grayish to blackish 
in color, formed of c(nicentric circles, the centre of which is quite 
convex and forms a " nipple," which is yellowish and shining 
when the surface is mbbed off. If this scale be raiscxl with a 
pin, beneath it may be seen a small, soft, oval, orange-coloretl, 
object, which is the true female insect. She is an almost shape- 
less mass of protoplasm, lacking head, legs, and eyes, only 
the thread-like mouth parts and anal plat(> lieing distinct. The 

* Aspidiulus perniclosus Comstock. Family Coccidce. See C. L. Mar- 
latt, Bulletin 62, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., and the numer- 
ous publications of many of the experiment stations, listed in his 
bibUography. 

538 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCILIRD FRUITS 539 



scale itself is merely a waxy co\'ering secreted Ijy the insect 
beneath. The scale of the male is smaller and somewhat elongated, 
the nipple being at the larger end. 

Injury by this species was first noticed near San Jose, CaL, 




Fig. 390. — Peach twigs infested with the San Jose scale. On the twig at 
the right a scale has been turned back showing the female insect — 
enlarged. (After W. E. Britton.) 

about 1S80, where the scale was most destrurti\i' and was in vest i- 
gated by Professor J. H. Comstock, who first described it. About 
1887 it was brought east on Japanese plum trees secured b}^ 
Eastern nurseries and was distributed by them on young trees, 



540 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



so that in 1S93 it was discovered in orchards in Maryland and 
Virginia. Since then it has been spread on nursery trees to 
practically eveiy State. Investigations made by C. L. Marlatt 
in 1901 showed that the insect is undoubtedly a native of east- 
central China, and was probabl}' brought to this country on flower- 
ing peach or some ornamental plant. 

Life History. The wintei' is passed as partly grown insects 
under the scales, which liegin to feed with the bursting of the 
buds in spring. In the lattei' part of April the insects have become 
full grown in the District of Colunil)ia, and the males emerge and 
fertilize the females. The male is a small, yellowish, two-wingeil 

\tiy, similar to Fig. 44 7«. The males 
emerge at night and are so small 
they are seldom seen unless reared. 
' ' • -^ About a month later the females 

commence to give birth to live 
young and continue to do so for 
some six weeks. This species differs 
from most scales in having no egg 
stage, the eggs hatching in the bod}' 
of the female. The young insects 
are very small, }'ellowish in color, 
and resend)le small mites. The}- 
have six legs, a i)air of antenna", 
and a long thread-like beak through 
which the food is sucked, as shown 
in Fig. 394. The young insect moves about freely for from twelve 
to thirty-six hours, then thrusts its b(>ak into the liark or fruit, and 
if a female does not move again. White, waxy filaments soon 
exude from over the ])ody, and in a couple of days the insect is 
entirely covered b}^ them, and as they mat down a scale is formed 
which conceals it. This young scale is whitish with a prominent 
nipple in the center. After the first molt, the females lose 
eyes, legs, and antennse, for which they have no further use. 
Nourished l)y the sap of tiie plant the insect develops rapidly and 
is full grown in about a month. In the District of Columbia 




Fi(i. ;i91. — Pear injure*! by the 
San .los? .scale .sh(j\\ing the 
discolored spots. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 541 

there are four or five generations a year, in tlie Soiitli there are 
probably nioi-e generations, while at the northern limit of the 
species there are two or po.ssil)ly three generations, as l)reeding 
continues until aftei- killing frosts. As with other small insects, it 




Fig. 392. — Peach leaf bearing San Jose scales along veins. 

is the remarkable power of reproducticju to wliich the destructive- 
ness of the pest is due. Thus it has been estimated that at Wash- 
ington, D. C, the progeny of a single female would number 
3,216,080,400 by fall, if all were to survive. It is not .surprising, 




Fig. 393. — Adult female San Jose scale, with scale removed to e.xpose the 
insect. (After Ahvood.) 

therefore, that a tree with but a few scales on it in spring will be 
covered by them and the fruit unfit for market in the fall, and that 
with these millions of little beaks pumping out the sap and poison- 
ing the tissues a tree soon succumbs. 



542 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The pest has been spread mostly by being transported on 
nursery trees. Trees infested from the nursery will usually have 
more scales on the lower trunk, from which they will spread to 
the limbs, while those infested from neighboring trees will have 
more scales on the young wood. AA'liere the pest is abundant 
the young insects are undoubte(lly blown from tree to tree by the 











Fig. 394. — Young larva and developing San Josp scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus 
Comst.): a, ventral view of larva, showing sucking beak and setse sepa- 
rated, with enlarged tarsal claw at right; h, dorsal view of same, still 
more contracted and witli the first waxy filaments appearing; c, dorsal 
and latei'al views of sam(>, somewhat contracted, illustrating further 
development of wax secret ion ; d, hiivv stage of the same dorsal and lateral 
views, showing matting of wax secretions and first form of young scale — 
all greatly eidarged. (.\fter Howard and Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

wind, or they may be can'icd on the feci of bii'ds or insects, or 
bi'iislicd off and carriiMl by jxM'sons oi' teams woi'king in the orchard. 
'I'he insect has been found on a long list of ])lants, l^ut on many 
of them it is largely accidental. Injur}' is practicall}" confined 
to plants of the RnancecF, which family includes all our common 
deciduous fruils. Of the orchard trees jxvnch, pear, Japanese 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 543 



plum, apple and quince are most injured n the order named, 
while cherry and European plum are less injured. 

Control. — As yet no spray has been found for use in summer 
which will more than check the increase of the pest without 
injury to the tree, and summer spraying is resorted to only when 




Fig. 395. — One of the most important native enemies of the San Jose scale, 
a little black ladybird-beetle (Microweisea niisella): a, beetle; h, larva; 
c, pupa; d, beetles, larvse, and pupae, among scales — all greatly enlarged. 
(After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

winter treatment has been neglected or has proven iui'lHcieiil. 
10 or lo per cent kerosene emulsion, dilute miscible oils, dilute 
lime-sulfur mixture, or whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 4 or .3 gallons, 
may be used for summer spraying. 

On the Pacific Coast trees are very generally fumigated with 
liydro('\anic aciil gas ='= for (lis ami other scale insects, but the 

* Sep ('. \V. \\(.(»hvortli, lUiMrliiis 1L"J ;uid Vol, t'al. Agr. Exp. Sta.; 
R. 8. Woglum, Bulletins 79 and 90, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



544 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

treatment has never come into favor in the East, principally, 
perhaps, because of the larger trees and the more scattered nature 
of the fruit ndustry. 

Practicalh' the only methods now used in the East consist in 
spraying the dormant trees with washes which penetrate the 
scales and destroy the insects. This may be done more effec- 
tively if the trees are pruned and lu^aded in so as to reduce the 
wood to be covered. Rough bark should be scraped off so that 
the scales btnieath ma\' l^e reached, l^adly infested trees should 
be spraycnl in the the early wintt>r as soon as they have hardened 
up and again in the spring just as the buds commence to swell. The 
spring spraying will suffice for trees slightly infested. Every bit of 
bark on the tree must be thoroughly wet, so none will escape. 
Lime-sulfur mixture seems to be the favorite wash for winte.r 
spraying at present, as it not only kills the scale, but aids in the 
control of many fungous diseases (see p. 50). Miscible oils arc 
also extensively used and have a certain advantage on hairy 
apple shoots and on badly infested trees, as they are more pene- 
trating and spi-ead better. Kerosene or crude oil emulsion con- 
taining 20 to 25 per cent of oil was the first remedy to be used and 
:s still extensively employed. Wha'e-oil soap, at the rate of 2 
pounds to the gallon, applied hot, is effective, but is too expensive 
for large users. (Se(> p. 50). 

The Fruit-tree Bark-beetle * 

If the outer l)ark is ))unctured by numerous small "worm- 
holes " so that it looks as if it had been struck with a charge 
of bird-shot, it indicates the presence of the fruit-tree bark-beetle 
or some nearly rt^lated species (see p. 653). Usually more or 
less gum exud(>s from the holes, i)articularly on stone fruits. 
Diseased or w(\Uv-growing trees are most subject to attack, but 
occasionally serious danuige is done to perfect!}- healthy trees, 
especially when young. Injuiy is largely due to allowing dead 
and dying trees to stand in the orchard, thus encouraging the 

* Scolytm ruyulosus Ratz. Family Scolytidoe. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Circular 29, Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 



545 



breeding of the pest in them and its spr(>a(l to liealtliy trees. 
" Another form of injury is the destruction at the beginning of 
spring of small twigs, together with the leaves which they bear. 
The beetles are also reported to destroy leaves by boring into the 
base of the buds at their axils." The holes in the bark are caused 
by the exit of the small parent beetles and by their subsequent 
entrance to deposit eggs. The adult beetle is about one-tenth 
inch long, b}' a third as wide, and of a imiform black color, except 
the tips of the wing-covers and parts of tlie legs, which are red. 
Life History. — The beetles emerge from the trees in April and 
May in the Middle States. The female burrows through the bark, 
and partly in it and partly in the sap-wood she eats out a vertical 




a he d 

Fig. 396, — The fruit-tree bark-beetle (Srolytus rin/vJnsuH): a, 1), beetle; c, 
pupa; d, larva — enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

gallery or brood chamber, along the sides of which at short inter- 
vals she gnaws out little pockets in which she places her eggs. 
The larvae hatching fiom these eggs excavate little side galleries, 
which branch out and widen as the larvae increase in size (Fig. 
397). The larva' become mature in about three weeks, when they 
form cells at the ends of their burrows and transform to pupse, 
from which the adult l^eetles emerge about a week later. There 
are probably three generations a year in the Middle States accord- 
ing to Dr. Chittenden. 

Were it not for the effective work of parasitic and predaceous 
insects which prey upon it, this insect would be a most serious 
pest. One of the most valuable of these is a little chalcis-fly * 

* Chiropachis colon Linn. 



546 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



of which Di'. ChitteruUni iH-ed 92 specimens fi'om 72 of the develop- 
ing beetles, and we luive frecpiently had twigs in which practically 
all of the developing beetles were parasitized. 

Co7it7-ol. — The most important point in the c(jntrol of this and 
similar pests is to cut out and destroy all dead and diseased wood. 

Burn all jjrunings and trim- 
mings. Aft'ected trees should he 
liberall}' fertilized in the spring 
so that they ma}' make a quick 
growth and better withstand the 
injury. Repellant washes have 
been advised for deterring the 
beetles from ovipositing. A 
thick soap wash containing a 
pint of crude carbolic acid to 10 
gallons may be used. Professor 
Gossard advises whitewashing! he 
trees in early spring, again in mid- 
summer and lastly about October 
1st, adding one-quarter pound 
of table salt or some Portland 
cement to make it more adhe- 
sive. He also reports killing the 
beetles in their burrows with 
an emulsion of carbolineum. 
''Emulsify by dissolving 3 pounds 
of naphtha soap in 3 gallons 
of water by boiling. While hot , 
add 1 gallon of carbolineum 
(arvenarius) and agitate as for 
kerosene emulsion with a foi-ce 
pump. Add four gallons of 
wat<'r foi' use and apply with a spray pump. Keep face and 
hands jjrotiM-ted from this spray." The carbolineum is rather 
expensive, however, and d(jes not seem to be nuich more 
effective than the whitewash. 




Fig. 397.— Work of tlio fi-uit-tree 
l)ark-boe(l(' showiiifi the main 
fiallerics, f lio side or larval galler- 
ies, and tlie pupal cells — slightly 
enlarged. (.After Ratzeburg.) 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 547 

The Buffalo Tree-hopper * 

The work of tho Buffalo Tree-hopper consists of a series of 
cuts or incisions in the limbs of fruit or shade trees, made by the 
female in the process of egg-lajang, which result in very character- 
istic Avounds. This injiu'v is somewhat like that done by the 
pei'iodical cicada oi' l)y ti'ee ciickets, but the scars are larger 





Fifi. 398. — The l)uffalo tree-hopper {Cerem huhalus Fab.): a, a, adult, enlai-ged 
and natural size; twig of apple showing recent egg-punctiu'es at /;; r, 
bark reversed with eggs in position; (/, single row of eggs — enlarged; 
e, wounds of two or three years standing on older limbs. (After Mar- 
latt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

and ai'e placed irregulai'ly. ^^'hen badly attacked the limits of 
small trees sometimes become so scarred that they are badly 
stunted or may be killed. The parent of this mischief is a cui'ious 
little grass-green insect, about three-eighths inch long, whose 
pronotum is broadly expanded into two sharp horns, whicli are 

* Ceresa bvbaliis Fal). Family Mcmbracicloe. See C. L. Marlatt, Circular 
23, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., and H. E. Hodgkiss, Tech. Bulletin 17, N. Y. 
Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 92. 



548 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

fancied to be like those of the buffalo, as indicated by the common 
name of the insect. They are very common, frequenting all 
sorts of rank-growing vegetation, appearing in midsummer, and 
being most numerous in August and September. 

Life History. — Egg-laying is commenced in August and is 
continued until killing frosts. The eggs are laid in two curved slits, 
with from six to twelve in each, as shown in Fig. 398, c, d. In 
making these slits the female cuts the bark between them entirely 
loose, so that the intervening wood soon dies, possibly to prevent 

the growth of the wood crushing the 

i i , eggs. A large scar is thus formed 

Jb1BkP^i/v^ which enlarges with each season's 

'^^^^K^tlm^%^ growth, and finally becomes an oval 

^^^^^^^^^^^^"^ shape by the center dropping out. 



1 •• "^ 



After a few \'ears badly infested 
limbs become very rough, are easily 
Fig. 399. — Nymph of broken b}' the wind and furnish van- 
buffalo tree-hopper— ^^ge points fur the attack of borers, 
enlarged. ( A f t e r „, i i i nr 

Hodgkis.s.) ^^^ ^'&'S* hatch the next May or 

June. Like the adults, the young 
nymphs feed on all sorts of succulent vegetation, seeming to prefer 
the juicy annual plants even to the tender terminals of trees, 
the orchards suffering most being those grown up in weeds. 

Control. — By keeping young orchards well cultivated and free 
from weeds, the nymphs will have no food in early summer and 
will starve or leave for better feeding grounds. Patches of weeds 
near young orchards should also be destro3'ed. When trees are 
badly wounded Yiy the egg punctures they should be well pruned 
and the prunings burned to d(\stroy the eggs. 

The Periodical Cicada ='= 

" There is probably no insect that has attracted more general 
interest and attention in this country than the Periodical Cicada, 
or the so-called Seventeen-year Locust. The earliest settlers 

* Cicada septendecim Linn. Family Cicadidce. See C. L. Marlatt, Bulletin 
71, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; A. D. Hopkins, Bulletin 68, 
W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 549 



doubtless associated its vast noisy swarms with the devastating 
invasions of the Migratory Locust of the East. Hence the popular 
name locust, which has been used so long that it is doubtful if it 
will ever be discarded for the proper name — Periodical Cicada." 
They are quite different from the true locusts, or grasshoppers, 
however, for the latter have biting mouth-parts while the cicadas 
are true bugs and suck the juices of the plant through a tube-like 
beak. Some twenty-two distinct l)roods of the cicada have been 
distinguished, thirteen of which appear at seventeen-j^ear intervals 
and seven of them appear at thirteen-year intervals, the former 




Fig. 400. — The periodical cicada {Cicada septendecim Linn.): a, adult; b, 
young nymph — enlarged; c, cast skin of full grown nymph; (/, adult 
females showing ovipositor at b, and beak at a — natural size. (After 
Marlatt and Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

being mostly in the North and the latter mostly in the South. 
Some one or more of these broods appears in every State east of 
the Rockies except Maine, Xew Hampshire and \'ermont. Every 
year there is a brood emei-ging in some part of the country, and 
the different broods have been carefull}- mapped so that their 
emergence may be anticipated. 

Life History. — The adults appear in immense swarms in late 
May or early June. " About four or five days after their first 
appearance," says Dr. Hopkins, "the males begin to sing" 



550 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



filling the air with their siirill culls, which arc i)roducecl by two 
drum-like membranes on the under surface of the first abdominal 
segment. " About eight or ten days later the sexes b(»gin to 
mate, and in about four or five days more th(^ females commence 
to deposit eggs. Each female is said to deposit fi'om three to 
five hundred eggs in numerous ragged j)unctures made by her 
powerful ovipositor in the twigs of shrubs and trees, and sometimes 
in the stems of herbaceous plants. These hatch in about six or 
eight weeks from the time they are deposited and the young 
cicada larvic emerge and fall to the ground. They th(ni bui-row 

I'd' 




il 


V 


mil 


x-M 



Fig. 401. — Egg mass of llic periodical cicada: '^ rccc-nt juincl iiic, surface view, 
6, same, with surface removed lo show arrangement of eggs; c, same, 
side view; r/, egg cavity with eggs removed, and showing the sculpture 
left by the ovipositor — all enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

beneath the surface and enter upon their long menial (wistence 
in the ground, fee<ling on tlic licjuids of roots and j^ossibly sul)- 
sisting on such luiln'iuent as may bc^ obtained from the soil itself. 
They change their position from time to tinuv and may I'arely 
enter the earth for a distance of eight to ten feet or more," though 
usually within t\v(j feel of the surfac(\ " \\\ the twelfth or 
thirteenth year th(> larva attains its full growth and in tim(> changes 
to the inte?-mediat(> or ])\ipa stage.* During th(> sjoring of the 

* Dr. Hopkins and oilier wiilcrs conitiionly use I he Icrnis \iin-ii and pnpn 
in descril)ing llie iminahue sla;^es of the cicad.a, i)nl I here seems no reason 
for discarding Ihe Icr'm in/inph used for other Heniipler.i. and which is cer- 
tainly useful in distinguishing the inunalure stages of insects with incomplete 
metamorphosis from those with complete mctamorpliosis which have a true 
pupa. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 551 

fifteenth and sixteenth years great numljers of the piipse maj' be 
found near the surface, and a few individuals may emerge during 
May and June of the sixteenth year. Early in April of the seven- 
teenth year the pupie commence to make preparations to emerge 
from the ground by excavating l)urrows or exit galleries to the 
surface. These exits are completed l)y the last of April. Ordi- 
narily they extend only to the surface, and are kept open fi'om a 
depth of a few inches to a foot or more. In some soils these 
exit holes are extended four or five inclies above tlie surface by 
means of clay cari'ied up from the sul)soil, and aro called cicada 



Fici. 402. — Pupal galleries or chimneys of the periodical cicatia: a, fi-oiii 
view; e, orifice; 6, section of o; c, pupa awaiting time of change; (/, 
])upa ready to transform — reduced in size. (After Riley, U.S. De])t.Agr.) 

chimne^-s. The pupa? come from the ground in the evening and at 
night, usually between sundown and ten o'clock, and proceed to 
the nearest upright object, which may be a tree, the side of a 
building, fence, or weed stem — anything, in fact, upon which they 
can climb and expose their ]:)odies to the action of the open air. 
In about an hour after emerging the skin on the back splits open 
and the adult insect works its way out (Fig. 403). The wings, 
which are short and soft at first, rapidl>- develoj); the body, 
wings and legs harden, and bj^ the following day the adidt is ready 
to take flight and enter upon its short aei'ial life, limited to about 
thirty days. During this short period they feed ]:)ut little, if at 



552 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



all, the males devoting their time dui'ing the day to flying about 
and making a noise, while the voiceless females busy themselves 
depositing eggs. " If the young nymphs do any injury to the 
roots of trees or plants, it is very rarely perceptible. The adult 
females, however, are capable of causing serious injury to young 
fruit trees in orchards and nurseries by the numerous punctures in 
the twigs, limbs and main stems made by them in the act of 




F^G. 403. — The full-growTi nymphs of the periodical cicada in different stages 
of molting and the newly emerged adults with body and wings still soft 
and white. 

ovipositing. The egg puncture makes an ugly wound, beyond 
which the twig dies, and the foliage of large trees on which 
hundreds of cicadas have oviposited turns brown, as if the tree 
had been scorched ])y fire. On young trees this results in destroy- 
ing the growth of a year or two and misshaping the tree, and the 
scars which remain later furnish points of attack for borers and 
the woolly apple-aphis. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 553 

Just before the cicadas leave the ground they are attacked 
by hogs and also by disease. Upon leaving the ground they are 
at once assailed by a host of predaceous insects and various animals. 
One of the most valuable insect enemies is a large wasp (Sphecius 
speciosus Dru.), which may often be seen bearing the adults 
to its burrow, where they furnish food for her A^oung. The Eng- 
lish sparrow is remarkably fond of the adults and is the most 
valuable factor in exterminating them in cities and towns. It 
has been noticed that cicadas are much more likely to emerge 
from newly cleared land, and with the removal of the forests and 
cultivation of the land they are undoubtedly becoming more 
scarce. 

Control. — There is no means of destroying the adults, but many 
of the pupae may be destroyed by allowing hogs to run on land 
known to be infested during April and May of the year thej* 
emerge, where it is feasible to do so. Injury to J^oung orchards 
may be avoided by not planting during the year or two previous 
to the emergence of a l)rood in the particular locality. Budding 
and grafting should also l)e avoided during the previous spring. 
Orchards should not be pruned the year before a cicada-year, 
so that there may be plenty of young wood in which they may 
oviposit and which may then be removed without injury to the 
tree. Evidently a knowledge of the time of appearance of each 
brood in different sections is of great importance and may be 
secured from the maps published (see Marlatt, I.e.). After all 
the eggs are laid the affected twigs should be pruned off in July 
and l^urncd l:)eforc the eggs have hatched. 

The Fall Webworm * 

The conmion fall webworm is so called because in the North, 
where there is but a single generation, its webs are abundant in 
August and September, in contrast to those of the tent cater- 
pillar, with which they are often confused, which are found in 
the spring. The wings of the adult moths expand from one to 

* Hyphantria cunea Dru. Family Arctiidoe. 



554 INSECT TESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

1| inches, and aiv eitlicr a pure milk-white, or more or less spotted 
with l)lack, the number of si)ots being exceedingly variable. The 
full grown caterpillars are about an inch long, covered wath long 
black and white hairs which project from numerous black tubercles. 




Fit;. 40-4. — The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Dru.): a, light form of full- 
grown larva; b, dark form of same; c, pupa; d, spotted form of moth^ 
all .-flight ly enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



They are also (luile variable in color, some being uniformly yellow- 
ish with l^lack and }-elk)w tubercles, while others have a dark 
stripe down the l)ack and are almost black. 

Life History. — In the XoiHi the moths emerge late in June and 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 555 




Fig. 405. — Web of the full wcbworni on apple, ishowing enclosed foliage and 
larvae feeding within. 



556 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



in Jul}', and lay the eggs late in July. The eggs are deposited 
on the leaves in pale yellowish -green patches of 400 to 500, often 
covered with whitish down from the body of the female, and 
hatch in about ten days. The young larvae are pale yellowish 
with brown markings and appear to be almost all head and hair. 
They at once spin a web over the foliage on which they are feeding, 
those from one egg mass feeding together and enlarging the web 
as necessary. In the North the webs are usually noticed in early 
August and are started at the tips of the limbs. Within them 




Fit;. 406. — Metcorus hyphanlrice, a common parasite of the fall webworm; 
a, adult female; h, empty cocoon showing cap and suspending thread 
— enlarged. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

the surfaces of the leaves are eaten off until they are left dry and 
brown. When all the foliage on a limb has been consumed, the 
caterpillars leave the web, enclosing the dead leaves, and form a 
new web on a fresh branch, and thus the tree soon becomes covered 
with unsightly webs, which are often mingled so that the whole 
tree is webbed over. The web is easily distinguished from that 
of the tent caterpillar, as it is found later, and the tent caterpillar 
makes a relatively small Aveb in the fork of a limb and never 
encloses foliage in it. The caterpillars become full grown in a 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 557 

month to six weeks, and then find secKided places under the bark 
or in a hollow of the tree, in the rubbish at its base, or in a fence 
corner, or sometimes just under the surface soil, and there spin 
Himsy silken cocoons with which they mingle their own hairs. 
They then transform to small brown pupa about one-half inch 
long, in which stage the winter is passed. In the Middle States 
and further south there are two generations, the moths appearing 
in April and May and laying eggs in late May and earl}- June, the 
caterpillars from which become full grown by mid-July. The 
second generation of caterpillars appear in late August and Sep- 
tember at about the same season as further north, and their 
pupae hibernate. 

^^'erc it not for their parasitic enemies these caterpillars would 
be much more of a pest, and it is when the parasites become scarce 
that injury results. One of their most common and effective ene- 
mies is a little Braconid fly,* whose small browai cocoon (Fig. 
406) is often found suspended from a twig or leaf. Many 
caterpillars are also killed by vaiious predaceous bugs, and fre- 
quently they are killed off by fungous disease. 

The fall webworm is a common pest of all orchard trees, and 
freciuently extends its injuries to shade trees. The larva) are not 
uncommon on cabbage, beets and a long list of garden crops. 
According to Dr. H. G. Dyar this species is confined to the South 
Atlantic States, but it has been confused with another species 
(Hyphantria texfor Harris) by practically everyone, and it is still 
a question as to whether the two species are really distinct and 
if so how they are to be distinguished. If the latter form be a 
distinct species, it occurs throughout the United States and has 
the same habits. 

Control. — The insect is readily controlled by spraying with any 
of the arsenicals when the work of the young larvae is first noticed. 
Where orchards are sprayed for the codling moth there will be 
little trouble with the first generation, and fruit-growers will do 
well to make it a practice to spray in August where they are 
troubled with this and other leaf-eating caterpillars. 
* Meteorus hyphantrioe Riley. 



r>58 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, ClARDEX AXD ORCHARD 



The Brown-tail Moth * 

Although Iho Browii-tiiil Moth has hocomo injurious only in 
Massachusetts, Xew Hampshire and Maine, it will l)e surprising 
if it tloes not become generally (listril)ut(Ml, foi- during the past 
three yc^ars its nests hav(^ ))een imported on pear seedlings 
from Fraiu-e by nurseries in all parts of the fniled States 
and southern Canada, and possibly some have escajx'd even the 
most vigilant inspectors. It has long been a serious pest in 

])ai1sof central and western luiro|)e, 
whence it was introduc(Ml into 
Massachusetts about ISiH), but did 
not attract attention until 1S97. 
The female motli is pure white 
except tiie tip of the alxlomen, 
which is golden l)rown and forms 
a large luft or brush, which gives 
the insect its mime. The wings 
of the female expand ]h inches, 
the males being slightly smaller, 
and l)ear one oi- two streaks of 
bi-own on the under sides. The 
full-grown caterpillar is 1| inches 
long, dai'k bi'owii, nuirked with a 
white (hish on the side of each 
segment. The botly is dark brown 
or l)lackish, well marked with 
patches of orange and covered witii 
numerous tubercles l)eai'ing hmg 
barbed haiis. On the centiv of the fifth and sixth alxlominal 
segments are small reti'aclile red tubeicles. The tubercles 
along the back and sides are thickl.x covered with shoi't brown 
hairs which give them a vel\'et\ ap|)earance. These micro- 
scopic hairs are bai'bed and aiv the nettling hairs which, when 

* Euproctifi chrysorrhcpd Limi. I'lunily Lijxn'K'.n'. See b. O. Howard, 
Farmers' Bulletin 204, V. S. D.-pl. Agr.; i:. D. Sauaorson, Bulletin 136, N. H. 
Agr. Exp. Sta. 




Fig. 407 —Winter web of the 
brown-tail mot h —one-half 
natural size. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 



559 



they alight on the skin, produce a dermatitis much Ukc that caused 
by poison Wy. As the cast skins are carried here and there by the 




Fig. 408. — Winter web of the bruwii-tail moth cut open to show celts wit hni. 

wind and tlic young calerpilhirs drop from the trees, jDeople 
are frequently badh' poisoned where the pest becomes abundant, 
so that it is a serious public nuisance as well as a defoliator of 




Fig. 409. — Winter web of the brown-tail moth bearing young larvae which 
have emerged before the foliage has appeared and are feeding on the 
dead leaves of the rest — two-thirds natural size. 

fruit and shade trees. The caterpillars i^refer fruit trees, pear, 
wild cherry, and apple being most relished, but become abundant 



560 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

on almost all the common shade trees, except the evergreens, 
and particularly on oak. 

Life History. — The moths emerge in midsummer. They are 




Fig. 410. — Full grown larvae of the browii-tail moth — natural size. 

strong flicis and are readily carried by the wind for many miles. 
They are attracted to lights in great numbers, so that they are 




Fig. 411. — A ma«s of cocoons of the brown-tail moth attached to foliage. 

more abundant in cities and villages. Late in July the eggs are 
laid on the terminal leaves, 300 or 400 being laid in an elongate 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 561 



mass and covered with brown hairs from the tip of the female's 
abdomen. They hatch in about three weeks and the young larvae 
feed on the surface of the leaves, leaving only the brown skeletons, 
so that badly infested trees turn brown in early fall. The cater- 
pillars hatching from an egg mass feed together on adjoining 
leaves, which they soon commence 
to draw together with silken 
threads, and by the first frosts they 
have spun them into a tough 
web. This is attached to the 
twig b}' the old leaf stems, which 
are bound to it by silk. The 
web looks like a couple of dead 





Fig. 412.— The brown-tail moth {Eu 
prodis chrysorrhoea Linn.): male above, 
female below — natural size. 



Fig. 413. — Brown-tail moth.s 
assembled on electric-light 
pole, Maiden, Mass., July 
12,1905. (After Kirkland.) 



leaves from a distance, but the leaves are merely the outer covering, 
and if the silk web be torn open, there will be found numerous 
small pellets of silk each enclosing from three to twelve of the little 



562 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

partly grown caterpillars. The ratorpillars omoroo just as the biuls 
burst in the spring and ivvd on the (>xpan(liiig foliage. Where 
abundant they soon strip a tice, for each of the nests harbors 
400 or 500 little caterpillars. In fi\'e or six weeks they have 
become full j^ii-own and sj)in tliiii cocoons of white silk among 





Fig. 414. — E^^ masses of (ho l)ro\vn-1:ul moth — natural size; caterpillars 
hatching: I'lom t he mass on leaf at left . 



the leaves, in which they transform lo .lark l)ro\vii pupa-. About 
three weeks later the moths emerge. 

Several native parasites and pii'daccous bugs prey upon the 
caterpillars, but do not seem to materially reduce theii- numbers. 
In Europe there are several parasites which prey on all stages 
of the insect and which the State of ^Massachusetts with the 
cooperation of the L'. S. Bureau of Entomology is introducing 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 563 



in hope that they may ultimately be as effective in this countn^ 
against both the brown-tail and gipsy moths. The most effective 
natural cheek of the brown-tail caterpillar is a fungous disease 
which often completely de- 
stroys large colonies, both in 
the spring and fall. 

Control. — On fiMiit and shade 
trees the wintei- nests may 
be pruned off and burned in 
winter, thus preventing any 
injury the next spi'ing, but 
this is impracticable on forest 
trees, which as a rule aie not 
sei'iously injured. The re- 
peated pruning often injuj'es 
the trees, as it is (bfftcult 
to cut all the nests without 
removing more of the new 
growth than is desirable. It 
is better, therefore, to spray 
the trees with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to the barrel, as soon 
as the eggs hatch in late summer, and thus destroy the young 
larvae before they have spun their winter webs. 




Fig. 41.5. — Young caterpillars of the 
brown-tail moth skeletonizing an 
apple leaf in late summer. 



The Gipsy Moth * 

History. — The Gipsy Moth has been known as a serious insect 
pest in Europe from the time of the earliest naturalists, the first 
authentic record being in 1662. It extends throughout the 
continent of Europe, over much of Asia and into Northern Africa, 
))ut is chiefly injurious in central and eastern Europe. It fre- 

* Porthetrta dispar Linn. Family Liparidce. See Forbush and Femald, 
"The Gypsy Moth," Mass. State Board of Agr. (1892); L. O. Howard, 
Farmers' Bulletin 275, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Annual Reports of the Mass. Super- 
intendent for the Suppression of the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths; E. D. 
Sanderson, Bulletin 136, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta.; Rogers and Burgess, Bulletin 
87, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr., containing bibliography. 



564 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



quently does serious injuiy there by defoliating large areas of 
forest and more frequently' fruit and shade trees, but its ravages 
cease in two or three seasons, not to occur again for several years, 
like those of many of our native insects, such as the forest tent 
caterpillar and tussock moth. In 1868 the insect was brought 
to this country by Professor Leopold Trouvelot at Medford, Mass., 
in his experiments in silk producing. Escaping from him into the 
neighboring woodland, the insect increased gradually for several 
years before being noticed, but in 1890 had become such a serious 




Fig, 416, — Gipsy moth caterpillars — natural size. (After W. E. Britton.) 



pest throughout this and neighboring towns that the State of Massa- 
chusetts commenced the aixluous task of its extermination. At this 
time the insect occurred in some twenty towns. For the next 
ten years it was successfully combated by the Massachusetts 
authorities, and in 1898 it had spread to but three towns not 
infested in 1890 and in many places it had apparently been exter- 
minated. So slight was the injury that legislative appropriations 
were discontinued for four vears, during which time the moth 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 565 

spread over four times the area previous!}^ occupied and became 
so abundant that State action was again necessary. From 1905 
to 1910 it spread throughout eastern Massachusetts and southern 
New Hampshire and Maine, and was found in two or three local- 
ities in Connecticut. Appropriations for its control have been 
increased until now the State of Massachusetts and the Federal 
Government arc each appropriating $300,000 per annum and 





Fig. 417. — The gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar Linn.): male above; female 
below — natural size. (After Forbush and Fernald.) 



the total cost of combating it in New England must be considerably- 
over a million dollars per year. As it is gradually spreading, 
there seems every reason to fear that it may ultimately invade 
other States. 

Life History and Description. — The eggs are laid in July and 
August, in a mass of 400 to 500, covered with yellowish hairs 
from the body of the female. The mass is an irregular oval 



566 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, G.^RDEN AND ORCHARD 

shape I2 hy i inches, as shown natural size in the figure, and is 
deposited on the bark of trees, but where abundant, on fences, 
stones, buildings, etc. The eggs hatch about May 1, and each 
mass yields a swarm of young caterpillars, the bulk of which 
become full grown by midsummer. The nuitur(> caterpillar has a 
dusky or sooty-colored body. -Vlong the back is a double row 
of five pairs of blue spots, followed by a row of six pairs of red 
spots, which readil}' distinguish this from any other common 




Fig. 418. — Eg;g in;iss of I lie 
gipsy moth on ;i Iiit of 
bark — natural size. 





Fifi. 41'.l. — Pupa- of tlic fiipsy 
moth, male and female — nat- 
ural size. 



caterpillar. The full-grown caterpillar is about 3 inches long. 
Sometime in July or early August it spins a t(>w tlucads of silk 
as a support, sheds its skin and changes into a pupa, sonu>- 
times enclosed in a thin cocoon, but often hanging pendant from 
its attachment. Characteristic light reddish hairs are scattered 
over the pupa The pupal stage lasts from ten days to two we(>ks, 
when the adult emerges. The moths emerge from the m'ddle 
of July to late August. Th(^ male is brownish-yellow, varying 
to greenish-brown in coloi;, the wings l)eing marked with darker 
stripes, has a slender body and the wings (>xpand about \l inches. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 567 

It flies by day with a peculiar zig-zag flight. The female moth 
is nearly white with numerous small l)lack markings, is heavy- 
bodied and sluggish. The wings expand al)out 2 inches, but 
fortunately the female is unalile to use them for flight. Were it 
not for this the spread of the pest would have l^ecMi nuich moi'c 
I'apid. After mating the moths live l)ut a short time and do no 
damage themselves. 

The pest is spread mostly in tlie caterpillai- stage. The young 




Fig. 420. — Woodland killed by being stripped by the gipsy moth caterpillars. 
Arlington, Mass, 1905. 



caterpillars drop down on fine silken threads and ma}' alight on 
vehicles which transport them to non-infested areas. AVhen just 
hatched, the caterpillars have very long hairs, slightly expanded 
at the base, and these, with the silk which they spin out, serve 
to buoy them up in the air so that they may be carried foi- a 
considerable distance by a strong wind. Where they occur in 
myriads on high trees, it seems quite probable that the little 



568 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




Fig. 421. — Egg masses of the gipsy moth on the trunk of an apple tree. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 569 

caterpillars may be carried by the wind for considerable distances, 
and that this is one of the chief means of spread. The egg 
masses may also be transported on merchandise or boxing, and the 
pest has undoulHcdly become established in several localities in 
this way. A few cases of importation on nursery stock have been 
known. 

The caterpillars will attack any of the fruit, shade or wood- 
land trees, and where they become excessively abundant will 
destroy all green vegetation of almost any kind. It is essentially 
a pest of forest trees, but where it occurs it defoliates all of the 
common fruit trees. Coniferous trees are killed after being once 
stripped of their foliage, and deciduous trees usually die after four 
or five defoliations. Recent experiments show that the young 
caterpillars when they hatch from the eggs are unable to feed on 
conifers, so that growths of soft wood may be protected by keeping 
all hard- wood trees cut out. 

Control. — In the orchard the gypsy moth is readil}' controlled 
by painting the egg masses with creosote in winter and by spraying 
the trees with arsenate of lead, 5 pounds per barrel, just as the 
eggs are hatching in the spring. Where this is practiced there 
is very little trouble in controlling it in orchards. Upon shade 
and forest trees the problem is much more difficult and the reader 
should consult the authors cited (footnote p. 563) as to the best 
means and apparatus. Although the pest is still confined to 
New England, it is such a serious one and there is so much danger 
of its spread elsewhere, that fruit-growers should be on their 
guard against it and should submit suspected specimens to the 
nearest entomologist. Should it be found in any other States, 
no expense should be spared to absolutely exterminate it before 
it may become established. 



570 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




Canker Worms * 

Since the early colonial 
days Canker Worms have 
been among the best-known 
insect pests of the apple 
orchard, but the}- are 
general feeders and attack several orchard 
and shade trees. According to Dr. \\ . E. 
Britton they " seem to have a preference 
for the foliage of apple, elm, chestnut, pear, 
oak, hickory, box-elder, and maple, in about 
the order named," and cheny and i)luni 
are recorded by others. The cankei- worms 
are among the most common of the " loopers " 
or " measuring worms," and are the larvie 
of two nearly related species of moths, very 
similar in both appeai'ance and habits. The 
larva) defoliate the trees in eaily spring, 
particularly in old sod orchai'ds which have 
not been cultivated or sprayed. 

The Spring Canker Worm f 

This species is so called from the fact that 
its eggs are laid in the early spiing instead of 
in the fall, as are those of the other species. 
It occurs from Maine to Iowa and southwaid 
to Texas, and in Colorado and California, but 
has not been rep rted on the Atlantic Coast 
south of New Jersey according to Coquillet. It 



* Family Geowetridir. See D. W. Coquillet, C'ircular 
9, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; W. E. Britton, Bien- 
nial Report Conn., Agr. Exp. Sta., 1907-08, p. 777; 
A. L. Quaintance, Bulletin 68, Part II, Bureau of 
Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 

t Paleacrita vernata Peek. Family GeomctridiP. 



Fig. 422.— Canker 
worms dropping 
from foliage in 
characteristic at- 
titudes. (After 
Bailey.) 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 571 



seems to be particularly injurious in the Mississippi Valley. The 
full-grown caterpillar is from three-quarters to one inch long, 
slender, and cylindrical, and has but one pair of pi'olegs on 





Fig. 423. — The spring canker worm 
{Paleacritn vernata) : a, male moth ; b, 
female moth — both natural size; r, 
joints of female antenna; d, joint of 
female abdomen; e, ovipositor — en- 
larged. (After Riley.) 



Fig. 424. — The spring can- 
ker worm (Paleacrila ver- 
nata): a, larva — natural 
size; b, eggs — natural size 
and enlarged ; c, side view 
of segment of larva; d, 
dorsal view of same — 
both enlarged. (From 
Riley.) 



the middle of the abdomen. The color varies fi-om ash-gray 
to green or yellow, but the predominating color is dark greenish- 
olive or blackish, marked with narrow palv lines down the back 




Fig. 425. — The female moths of the spring cankerworm — twice natural size, 
and pup» — three times natural size. (After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

and a whitisli stripe along each side. The wings of the male moths 
expand an inch, and are semi-transparent, brownish-gray, with 
three rather indistinct dark lines aci'oss the fore-wini>s. The 



572 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

females are wingless and at the first glance look much more like 
spiders than moths. They are about one-third inch long, of a dull 
brown or grayish color with a dai'k brown stripe down the middle 
of the back. 

Life History. — The moths emerge from the pupae in the ground 
in March and April and the females climb up the trunks of the 
trees, where the}- place their eggs in irregular masses of about 
fifty, under loose scales of bark, in cracks in the bark, in crotches 
of limbs, etc. The individual eggs are yellowish-green, turning 
quite dark just before the larvae hatch, of an oval shape, and 
about onc-thirty-fifth inch long. The eggs hatch in about a 




Fui. 426. — Eggs of spring canker worm — twice natural size. (After VV. E. 

Brit ton.) 

month and the young caterpillars commence to feed on the leaves 
just as they are expanding, at first eating small holes through 
them, but later devouring all but the midribs. The young cater- 
pillars have a habit of dropping from the trees and hanging 
suspended on strands of silk. In four or five weeks they have 
become full grown and enter the soil to a depth of 2 to 5 inches, 
where they hollow out earthen cells, which they line with a little 
silk and in them change to pupae, in which stage the summer and 
winter is passed. The pupa is nearly one-third inch long, light 
bi-own in color, somewhat pitted, and the male pupa bears a 
simple spine at the tip of the abdomen. 

The Fall Canker Worm * 

The Fall Canker Worm seems to be the more common form in 
New England according to Dr. Britton and is a more northern 
species according to Coquillet, occurring through the North- 

* Alsophila pometaria Harris. Family Geomelridce. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 573 

Central States and in Colorado and northern California. As its 
name indicates, it differs in life history in that the moths emerge 
in November and December, " often occurring in great numbers 
on foggy days during a thaw after the ground has been frozen." 
They are most numerous about the middle of November in Connec- 
ticut, although Dr. Britton states that when the ground freezes 




Fig. 427. — The fall canker worm (Alsophila pometaria): a, male moth; 
b, female — natural size; c, joints of female antenna; d, joint of female 
abdomen — enlarged. (From Riley.) 

in earl}' fall and does not thaw, many of the adults do not emerge 
until March, when the life history would be identical with the 
last species. The eggs are laid in clusters of about 100, arranged 
in rows, each egg fastened on end, and are laid on the l^ark of the 
smaller branches or on the trunk. The egg is brownish-gray, 
rather darker than that of the spring species, and is shaped like 




Fig. 428. — The fall canker worm {Aluophila pometaria): a, h, egg; c, d, 
side and dorsal views of larval segment — enlarged ; e, egg mass ; /, larva ; 
g, female pupa — natural size; /;, anal tubercle — enlarged. (From Riley.) 

a flower-pot, the outer end being marked with a dark spot in the 
centre and a dark ring near the margin. The eggs hatch in late 
April and early May in Connecticut. The larvae are very similar 
in general appearance to those of the spring canker worm, but 
may Vje easily distinguished by having two pairs of prolegs on 
the middle of the abdomen. The pupa is similar to that of the 



574 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



other species, but is somewhat stouter and the spine at the tip 
of tlie abdomen of the male pupa is always forked. The cocoon 
is much tougher, contains more silk, and is therefore less easilj' 
crashed. The mal(> moth is slightly larger than that of the other 
species, with longer antennae, and the wings are firmer, less trans- 
])ai'(Mit and darker in color. The fore-wings are crossed by two 

whitish bands, the outer one l)eing 
indented on the front margin so that 
it forms ;i distinct spot, and this outer 
liaiid is s(H'n on tiu^ hind-wings, though 
it is less distinct. The females are a 
uniform, ash-gray without markings, 
and wnth longer antennie than those 
of the otlun- species, the segm.ents of 
which luv about as l)road as long, 
and are bare of hairs. 

Control. — In old sod orchards where 
the pest is always worst, thorougii 
cultivation will largely destroy the 
^^^. ^^^ pupa^ during the summer. The cat- 

^^^^^v^^Hv crpllars may be c^uickly desti'oyc^l by 

^^^^VI^HB| spraying with arsenate of lead, 3 

^tKr * ^P^ pounds, or Paris green, one-third 

pound, p(>r barnd. The first spraying 
should be applicnl as soon as the foliage 
is fairly expanded and before the 
trees bloom, and the second should 
be given as soon as the blossoms 
drop. The first is the more im- 
portant and one thorough spraying 
will usually suffice, as the young caterpillars are much more easily 
killed. Where for any reason spraying is not feasible, the females 
may be prin-entcd from ascending the trees by encircling the 
trunks with bands of tanglefoot or some other sticky substance 
which they cannot cross. Idiese bands should be applied in early 
Octobci- and late March, according to the species prevalent. The 



Fig. 429. — Wingless fe- 
male moth and egg 
mass, and winged male 
moth of the fall canker 
worm — twice natural 
size. (After W. E. 
Britton.) 



SOME INSECTS INJl PJOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 575 

tanglefoot may be applied direeth' to the l)ark of the tree, making 
a band two inche.s wide Ijy one-quarter inch thick. Printer's 
ink, bodlime, and caterpillar-lime (raupen-lime) are often used, 
l)ut should not be placed on the bark. A narrow band of cotton 
batting should be rvm around the tree and covered willi a 




Fig. 430. — Canker worm inoth.s and cfj;}! ina.st^cs caught on sticky bund. (After 

W. E. Britton.) 



strip of building paper 4 to 6 inches wide, on the centre 
of which the sticky band should be placed, thus preventing 
any injury to the bark by the material. Where spraying 
and cultivation are customary canker worms rarely become 
troublesome. 



576 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Plum Curculio * 

Throughout the States east of the Rocky Mountains, the Pkmi 
Curcuho is one of the worst pests of the common stone and pome 
fruits. Its larva is the common white " worm " found in peaches, 
plums, and cherries, while apples and pears are scarred and gnarled 
by the feeding and egg punctures made by the adults. It is a 
native insect which breeds on wild plums, wild crab-apples and 
hawthorns. The adult is a thick-set snout-beetle about one- 
quarter inch long, brownish in color, marked with gray and 
lilack, and with four black ridged tubercles on the wing-covers. 




Fig. 431. — The plum curculio {Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.): a, larva; b, 
beetle; c, pupa — all much enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

The larva is a footless, cylindrical, whitish grub, about one-third 
inch long, with a small brown head, and usually lies in a curved 
position as in Fig. 431. 

Life History. — The Ijeetles hibernate under grass, leaves, and 
other trash on the grountl in or near the orchard, or in neighboring 
woodlands, and commence to emerge just before the fruit trees 
bloom in the spring. They feed somewhat on the buds, unfolding 



* Conotrdflidus nenuphar Herb.st. Family Curculionidce. See C. S. 
Crandall, Bulletin 9S, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta.; S. A. Forbes, Bulletin, 108, ibid.; 
J. M. Stedman Bulletin 64, Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta.; E. P. Taylor, Bulletin 21, 
Mo. State Fruit Exp. Sta.; A. L. Quaintance, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 
1905, p. 325; Circular 120, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 577 



leaves and blossoms, but mostly on the young fruit as soon as it 
is set; indeed, in New England the beetles do not emerge until 




1 2 

Fig. 432. — 1, young plums showing crescent-shaped egg punctures of the 
plum curculio; 2, adult curculio on young peach — four times natural 
size. (After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

a week or two after the apple blossoms fall. The females com- 
mence to lay eggs in the young fruits as soon as formed. The 






Fig. 433. — Plum curculio on yuung 
apple and egg punctures — en- 
larged. 



Fig. 434. — The plum cm-- 
culio — enlai'ged five 
times. (After Stedman.) 



egg puncture of the plum curculio is shaped like a crescent and 
has given it the veiy apt name of "little Turk." The female 



578 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

first cats out a small hole with hoi- stout snout, and deposits a 
small oval, white egg in the eavity. Siie then cuts a small seg- 
ment of the skin and flesh ;ir()nnd it so that the growtii of the 
fruit will n(jt ciiish tiie egg. the whole ojxM'ation taking from 
fifteen to thirty iniinitcs. The life of a Icinale averages about 
two months, diii'ing wliicli time she will lay 100 to 300 eggs and 
probably makes as many more feeding punctures. The punctures 
made l)y the adults of both sexes in feeding ai'e simple round 
lioles like those in whicii the eggs are laid, but without tiie crescent 




Fi(i. 43"). — Larv.T of the iihim curculio — enlarged five times. (After Stedman.) 

marks, f'^i^ecjuently gum cwudes fi'om punctures on the stone 
fi'uits. 

The egg hatches in from thr(H> to five days and the young 
larva l)ores into tlie fruit until grown, usually feeding around the 
pit in stone fruits. The lai'va becomes gi-own in from twelve to 
eighteen days (in jx'aches) accoi'ding to (Juaintance, l)ut in central 
Illinois in fallen api)l(\s it itniuii-es from twenty to twenty-six 
days according to Crandall. \\'hen full grown the larva leaves 
the fruit and enters the soil, wheic it forms a small cell an inch 
or two below the suiface. in which it ti'nnsforms to a white pupa. 
Three or four weeks ela]ose before^ the emei'gence of the adidt 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 579 




beetles; the first emerge about ten weeks after the apples 
blossom, the majority appear two or three weeks later, and the 
rest continue to emerge imtil Octolx^r. If the weather is dry 
the beetles may remain in the cells nmch longer than normally, 
while a shower will bring out numbei's of them. T^pon emerging 
the l)eetles feed upon the 
ripening fruit. Tn many 
sections the injuiy to u])- 
ples by the feeding punc- 
tures then made is worse 
tlian the spring injury, as 
the. surface of the fruit is 
injui'cd and entrance places 
for rot are furnished. The 
beetles average about one 
])uncture a day for six weeks 
after emergence in central 
Illinois and commence to 
enter hibernation with the 
first frosts. In New Hamj)- 
shire we have seen no evi- 
dence of injury b}^ the 
beetles in late simimer oi- 
fall. 

Injury. — Injured plums 
and peaches usually droj) 
to the gromid, or if they 
remain on the tree, ripen 
prematurely, and rot more 
quickly. Chen-ies stick to 
the tree, but the fruit is 
often small and gnarled 
from the egg-scars, or eaten 
out liy the larva. In ap- 
ples the larva? only develop in those which drop to the ground, 
the rapid growth of the apples probably crushing the eggs. The 



m 



o-^ 



Sk 




Fig. 436. — Work oi ilic iiluin curculio 
on apple: d, feeding jjunetures from 
.surface and in .section; e, egg puncture 
from surface; e', .same in section — 
all enlarged. (After C. S. Crandall.) 



580 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

egg-scars and feocling-punctures cause apples to become gnarly, 
this being particularly true of summer varieties, which are often 
rendered worthless, and even winter sorts are blemislied by the 
scars which also furnish points of attack for rots. 

Control. — L'requent cultivation while the pupa» ai-e in the soil 
in midsummer will thi'ow them to the sui'face and ci-ush many of 
them, and has been found to aid materially in the control of the 
pest. As the larva* often develop in the fallen fi'uit, it is well 




Fio. 437. — Jarring trees over a curculio catcher, (After Slingerland.) 

to gath(M' it every few days and destroy it before^ th(> larviu have 
left it to pupate, which will also aid in the conti'ol of other fruit 
pests. The l)eetles have a hal^it of " sulling," " playing possum," 
or feigning death, when suddenly disturjjed, and will drop to the 
ground if a limb is jarred. This has given rise to the common 
practice of jarring peach, plum, and cherry ti'ees and cohecting 
the beetles on frames beneath them. This may be done with 
simple fram(>s covei-ed with canvas, a frame l)eing placed on either 
side the tree and a flap extending from one over the edge of the 
other, from which the beetles are picked u]), or a regular curculio- 



SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ORCHARD FRUITS 581 

catcher such as has been commonly used in New York may be 
more convenient. This is used as shown in Fig. 437, the frame 
being covered with oil-cloth and slanting to a can containing kero- 
sene for the destruction of the beetles which slide into it. Tlie 
jarring should be done in the morning, as the beetles do not drop 
as readily in midday. During the past two years extensive 
experiments have been made in spraying with arsenate of lead 
to poison the beetles while feeding, which show that this is much 
the most satisfactory method of controlling the p(>st. By spra}'ing 
with 2 to 3 pounds of arsenate of lead per barrel just after the 
blossoms fall, and again three weeks later on peaches, and with 
two more sprayings at intervals of ten days on apples, from 60 
to 90 per cent of the injury from the curculio has been prevented. 
Only neutral, or nearly neutral arsenate of lead should be used 
on stone fruits, as a slight amount of soluble arsenious acid will 
burn the foliage badly. Paris green may be used with Bordeaux 
mixture on apples, but does not seem to be as effective as arsenate 
of lead, and is not advised for stone fruits. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 

The Woolly Apple-aphis * 

The Woolly Aphis is one of the most (Instructive pests of 
young apple orcluiuls. and as it ^vorks mostly upon the roots it 
often escapes detection until tlic I I'ce is hadly injured or killed. 



S;^Q^J£mV-M}\ 




Fig. 43S. — The woolly applc-ai^his {Scltizoncum lanigera Hausni.): a, agamic 
female; h, young nymph; c, last .stage of nymph of winged aphis; d, 
winged agamic female with enlarged antenna above. — all greatly enlarged 
and waxy excretion removed. (After Marlatt, IL S. Dept. Agr.) 

The aphitles will be found clustered in bluish-white, cottony 
masses, looking like patches of mold, on the smaller twigs, par- 

* Schizoneura Innigera Hausmann. Family Aphididoe. See C. L. Mar- 
latt, Circular 20. Oiv. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; R. I. Smith, Bulletin 23, Ga. 
State Board of Ent.; Gillette and Taylor, Bulletin 134, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., 
p. 4; C. P. Gillette, Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. I, p. 306. 

582 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



583 



ticulaiiy water-sprouts, and around wounds or scars on the trunk 
or limbs. Their presence in these places is always an indication 
that others are feeding upon the roots, Avhere they cause gall-like 
swellings, so that the roots soon become a mass of knots and die 
in a year or two if the injury continues. When badly attacked 
a tree becomes sickly, the foliage turns yellow, and if not killed 
outright by the aphides, it falls an easy prey to borers and otluM- 
pests. Tnjm'y seems to l)e worse on light soils and not so severe 
on heavy soils. Whether the insect is a native or European 
sjx'cics is a matter of dispute. In Europe it is called the " Aiiier- 




X3-? 



Fig. 439. — The wooly apple-aphis: at left, apterous viviparous female; 10, 
fall migrant; 11, over-winter young. (After Gillette and Taylor.) 

ican blight," and was described from Germany in ISOl. It has 
now become distril:)uted all over the world on nursery stock, 
which forms the principal means of its dissemination. 

Life History. — On infested trees aphides will be found in all 
stages of growth on the roots in early spring. On the trunk, 
under bits of bark or under the dead bodies of those killed the 
previous fall, will be foinid numerous small aphides which have 
hibernated there, though in the North these may be killed out 
during severe winters. As the buds begin to open, the aphides 
on the trunk locate on tender new bark and commence to feed, 
and many migrate from the roots to the top at about the same 



584 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



time. They are not usually detected until the}' have multiplied 
sufficiently to make snuill white patches on tlw bark or leaves 
which look like mold. During thv spi'ing and summer all are wing- 
less fenuiles, not over one-tenth inch long, of a reddish-brown 
color and covered with a white, waxy secretion, given off in threads 
from the abdom(>n so as to foi-m a cottony nuiss over the colony. 
These females jii-oduce from 2 to 20 young per day, which 





Fig. 440. — The woolly ajiple-aphis: at left, colonies on twig and in scar 
on an apple limb; at right, crown and root of young apple tree, showing 
characteristic swellings produced by the root aphides. (After Alwood.) 

become full grown in from eight to twenty days according to 

Alwood,* 100 or more probably being produced in two weeks. 

Reproduction continues on both tops and roots except as checked 

by the cold of winter, the aphides becoming most abundant in 

midsummer. Early in the fall a generation of winged aphides 

* Bulletin 45, Va. Crop Pest Commission, p. 12, Special Bulletin, Va. 
Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 585 




Fig. 441. — Wuolly apple-aphides on stem of seedling tree and swelling 
made on roots slightly enlarged. (After Rumsey and Brooks.) 



586 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

appears, whicli migrates to other trees. They are about one-twelfth 
inch long and have a wing expanse of one-quarter inch. They 





Fig. 442.— Srxual (vmnlv i>f the woolly apple-aphis, .showing egg before ami 
after extrusion — greatly enlarged. (After Alwood.) 

appear to l)e black, but the abdomen is really a dark yellowish 
or rustv brown color when closely examined, and bears more or 
less of the wax\- secretion on the tip. Each of these winged 




Fig. 443.— Sexual female and male of the woolly apple-aphis— greatlyenlarged. 

(Aftf<r Alwood.) 

females give birth to from four to six wingless males and females, 
which are deposited on the trunk of the tree. The sexes are 
wingless, much smaller than the summer forms, and are without 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 587 

l)eaks, so that they take no food. The female i.s a Ijrown-ochre 
color, and the male dark green or greenish-brown and smaller, 
as shown in Fig. 443. They become full grown in about eight 
days, when they mate and the female then lays a single large black 
egg, which is dejjosited in the crevices of the bark on the lower 
part of the trunk. These eggs hatch in the spring and give rise 
to new colonies. 

As they multiply large galls are produced on the roots, the 
tissue prol)ably Jjeing poisoned ljy the moutli-j)arts of the 
insects. As a result the roots soon die and the aphidcss then 
migrate to the growing roots, so that their absence on the worst 
knotted roots does not indicate that they have forsaken the 
tn^e, but that they are on younger roots. 

Control. — Nurserymen commonly apply a liberal amount of 
tobacco dust in trenches along the rows, which kills the aphitles 
and acts as a repellant, as w(dl as being worth half its cost as a 
fertilizer. This is probalily the best practice in the nursery unless 
the aphides Ijecome abundant, when more vigorous treatment 
should be used, l)ut tobacco has not alwa\'s proven a satisfactory 
treatment for oi'chard trees, though used with apparent success 
in some instances. The aphides may be destroyed on the foliage 
l)y spraA'ing with 7 per cent- kerosene emulsion, niiscil)l(! oils 
diluted oO to 10 times, A\hale-oil s(jap, 1 pound to (5 gallons, or 
tobacco extracts, " black leaf " being used 1 part in 70 of water. 
Whatever insecticide is used nuist be applied in a sti'ong spray 
so as to thoroughly wet and penetrate the waxy covei-iug of the 
aphides. A winter spray of lime-sulfur wash desti'oys the hiber- 
nating aphides on the trunk, and dout)tless kerosene emulsion or 
miscible oils applied in early si)i-iiig, as for the San Jose Scale, 
would be as effective, though tiie lime sulfur would i)r()l)ably also 
destroy some of 1lu> eggs. The trunks of trees known to be 
infested may be banded with tanglefoot or similar sticky 
materials as ih^scribed for cankcn- worms (p. r)74) to prevent 
the aphides from migrating frcjni the roots to the top. Where 
the aphides are abundant on the roots, the earth should be removed 
for 6 or 8 inches deep over the affected roots and 10 per cent 



588 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

kerosene emulsion or dihite tobacco extract should be applied, 
using two or throe gallons per tree, or enough to thoroughly 
wet the soil. Dilute miscible oil might be used in the same way. 
Boiling hot water may be similarly applied, but is hardly prac- 
ticable for extensive use. Carbon bisulfide injected into the soil 
has been frequently recommended, but practical tests do not seem 
to demonstrate its efficiency. Badly infested nursery stock should 
be destroyed, and it will be a good practiceto dip all trees in hot 
soap solution, or lime-sidfur wash, to destroy any aphides as well 
as San Jose scale. It has been observed that trees grown on 
Northern Spy stock do not seem to be as badly injured, and the 
matter of the susceptibility of varieties should receive further study. 

The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer * 

The young apple orchard must be given frequent inspection 
to detect the work of the round-headed borers, for if they become 
established in the young trees it is difficult to kill them and they 
soon girdle the trunks. They are most injurious to apple and 
quince, less so to pear, and also infest wild thornapple trees and 
mountain ash. The species occurs generally east of the Kocky 
Mountains, but is not commonly injurious in the Gulf States. 
The presence of the ]x)rers may hv detected l)y the retarded growth 
of the trees, with a yellowing of the foliage, and the sawdust like 
castings which the larvtc throw out from the entrances of their 
burrows, accompanied by a discoloration of the bark over the 
new burrows, and in early spring there is often a slight exudation 
of sap. Injury is most severe in neglected orchards, where grass 
and weeds are allowed to grow a])Out the bases of the trees, as 
the beetle, which flies at night, seeks tlu? concealment of the rank 
vegetation dui'ing the day. The parent beetle is a handsome 
insect about three-quarters inch long. The antennic and legs are 
gray, the head and under surface of the l:)ody silvery white, and 
the upper surface is light brown with two longitudinal white stripes. 

* Saperda Candida Fal>. Family CerambycidcB. See F. H. Chittenden, 
Circular 32, Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; E. P. Felt, Bulletin 
74, N. Y. State Museum, p. 23, which gives full bibliography to 1902. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 589 

Life History. — The beetles emerge from late May to the middle 
of July and the females soon commence to deposit their eggs. The 
female eats out a little slit in the bark, in which the egg is inserted 
and often pushed under the bark and then covered with a gummy 
substance. It is a pale rust-brown color, about one-third inch 
long, of a broad oval shape, and usually concealed on young trees. 
The egg hatches in two or three weeks. The young larviP tunnel 
just under the Ijark on the sap-wood, usuall}^ working down 
toward the l^ase of the tree, the bark over these burrows often 




Fig. 444. — The round-headed apple-tree borer (Saperda Candida Fab.) 
larvae, adults, and exit hole — natural size. (After Rumsey and Brooks). 

cracking the next spring, and the fine castings and borings sifting 
out. At the beginning of the second A'ear the larva is about 
five-eighths inch long. The larva continues in the sap-wood 
during the second season, and it is at this time the most serious 
damage is done, for where several occur in a tree they almost 
girdle it. The next season they penetrate into the heart-wood, 
and several of them will fairly riddle a small tree with their 
cylindrical borrows. The full-grown larva continues this burrow 



51)0 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



out into tlie bark, often cutting clear across a tree. The upper 
part of the burrows are stuffed with fine borings and tlie lower 
part with long wood fi})res. The full-gi'own larva is a light 
yellowish, cylindrical grub, about three-quarters inch long. The 
head is small, legs are lacking, and the body tapers graduall}' 
from the thorax backwai'd, the segments being quite constricted. 
The third spring tiie larvie transform to pupa^ and about three 
weeks later the adult Ixn^tles emerge through lai'ge round holes. 

Control. — Tlu; females may be pi-evented from laying their 
eggs by wrapping the trunks witii wii-e n(>11ing, building papei-, 




Fig. 445. — Work of the round-headed apple-tree borer: a, puncture in 
which egg is laid; b, same in section; e, hole from which beetle has 
emerged; /, same in section; g, pupa in its cell. (After Riley. "^ 

or w'ood veneer. If non-rusting wire n(^tting is used it may be 
left on and will also j^rotcct the trees from mice and rabbits. 
The paper or wood wrappings should be applicnl about May 1st, 
and removed in late summer. They should be tied to the tree 
tightly just below the crotch and should extcmd an inch or t\\'o 
into the soil below. The wire netting should be held out from 
the trunk of the tree by a layer of cotton batting under it at the 
upper end. Various washes have been used to repel the beetles. 
Thick whale-oil or caustic soft-soap to which a pint of crude 
carbolic acid is added to every 10 gallons is often used and should 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



591 



be painted over the trunk so as to form a thick coating. Others 
recommend a thick coating of whitewash to wliich a little Port- 
land cement is added to make it more adhesive. These should 
be applied by the middle of May and as often as need be to keep 
the trunk covered until late summer. If the trees are gone over 
every fall and spiing, the c^gg scars and Inirrows of the young 
larvffl ma}' be detected and the\' may be cut out while still in the 
sap-wood, without nuich injury to the tree. When the borers 
get into the heart-wood it is almost impossiljle to dig them out with- 
out doing more injury to the tree, but they may sometimes be de- 
stroyed by injecting carbon bisulfide into the burrows and plugging 
the aperture with putty or clay. Where a tree has been nearly or 
quite girdled, it nui}' sometimes be saved by 1)ridge-grafting. 
Orchards kept free of grass and weeds and treses with smooth 
healthy bark are much less affected. 

The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer * 

This species is more aljundant than the preceding, but does 
less damage. It prefers trees which have been weakened or ai-e 
diseased, and attacks almost all of the common orchard trees as 
well as numerous shade and forest trees, so that it is everywhere 
common. The species is 
found from southei-n Can- 
ada to Mexico. The larvae 
live just beneath the bark, 
where they hollow out 
broad flat channels which 
extend slightly into the 
sap-wood. The infestation 
may be detected l)y the 
discoloration of the l)ark. 
Where abuntlant they will 
often completely girdle 
young trees, thus causing 
their death, and they are frecjuently found a])undant under 

* ('ln-ijs()b(>tlirls frniornta F;il) I'^aniily Buprcstidw. See Chittenden, I.e. 




Fig. 446. — The flat-headed apple-tree 
borer (Chrysobothris femora la Fab.) : 
a, larva; b, beetle; c head of male; 
d, pupa — twice natural size; (After 
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



592 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

the loosening bark of the dying limbs of large trees, as they 
infest not only the trunks, but the lower limbs. The adult beetle 
is about one-half inch long, dull metallic brown above, and the 
wing-covers taper sharply at the tip, somewhat like a click beetle. 
The wing-covers are ornamented as shown in the figure, and 
beneath them, as seen when in flight, the body is a bright metallic 
greenish-blue. The male is smaller and the head is green. The 
beetles are active during the heat of the day and may often be 
found on logs or injured trees. 

Life History. — The beetles emerge from the middle of May until 
mid-summer. The eggs are deposited in crevices of the bark, 
several often being laid together. The eggs are yellowish, 
irregularly ribbed and about one-fiftieth inch long. The species 
receives its name from the shape of the larva, the thorax of which 
is very broadly expanded, so that it looks like the head, which is 
very small and almost concealed by it. The abdonuMi is much 
smaller and the whole body is flattened. The larva is about 
one inch long, and usually rests in the curved position shown in 
Fig. 446. The larva becomes full grown in a single year and in the 
South may pupate in November, but in the North does not pupate 
until the next spring, when it remains as a pupa about three weeks. 
The beetle emerges through an elliptical exit hole, in contrast to 
the round hole of the round-headinl borer. 

Control. — As this beetle is everywhere present, injuiy may 
always be expected if trees are not kept in a healthy condition, 
but if the orchard is well cared for it seldom does much damage. 
The same measures for preventing oviposition as suggested for 
the previous species are advised, but the repellant washes nmst be 
applied higher on the trunks and should extend to the lower 
branches as high as can be reached. 

The Oyster-shell Scale * 

Not infrequently young apple and pear trees are encrusted and 

killed by the Oyster-shell Scale, as are young poplars and maples. 

* Lepidosaphes ulmi Linn. Family Coccidce. See Quaintance and 
Sasscer, Circular 121, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. .Vgr., and refer- 
ences there given. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 593 

It is probably our most common scale insect, being almost always 
found on apple trees, on which it works on the bark or the twigs 
and trunk, reproducing even on old ti'unks, where the scales will 
be found under the loose bark and are imdoubtedly a factor in 
causing the bark to slough off. All of the common orchaixl trees 
are occasionally infested but rarely injured, as are also maple, 
poplar, horse-chestnut, willow and lilac. Quaintance and Sasscer 




FiG. 447. — The oyster-shell scale (Leiridosaphes idmi Linn.): a, female 
scales on twig; b, female scales from above; c, same from below showing 
eggs; d, male scale — enlarged. (After Howard.) 



give a list of over 100 trees, shrubs, and plants upon which the 
scales have been found. The species is a cosmopolitan one, 
being introduced into this country at an early date and now 
being found in every State, and occurs throughout the world where 
the food-plants exist. 

The mature female scale is about one-eighth inch long, of a 
dark-brown color, sometimes almost blackish, and shaped some 
what like an oyster-shell, as shown in Fig. 4-17. The male scale is 



594 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



much snuiUcr, and with l)ut one cast skin at the anterior end, as 
shown in the same ri,i!;ure. 

Life Histori/. — If one of the female scales be turned over during 
the winter, numerous oval, white eggs will be found under it, 
with the shriveled body of the female insect tucked away at the 
anterior end. These eggs hatch a week oi' two after the apples 
))lossom, producing small y(41owisii insects, which look like mites 
as they crawl over the bai-k, which they often give a yellowish 




Fi(i. 448. — The oystor-shell scalo: n, iuhilt male; h, foot of same; c, j'oung 
nymph; d, antenna of same; e, a(hih female taken from scale — a, c, 
c, greatly enlarged, h, d, still more enlarged. (After Howard, U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) • 

tinge where veiy abundant. The young insect is of microscopic 
size and is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 448, c. It settles down 
after a few hours' wandering and liegins sucking the sap from 
the bark. In a day or two long, white waxy filaments exude 
from over the body, wliich soon mat down and form tlu^ 
protecting scale, to which the cast skins are add(^d when the 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 595 

insect molts. The female loses hoi- legs, anteniue, and eyes, after 
the first molt, and when full grown is an elongate, yellow- 
ish, jelly-like mass, being simply a " reproductive sack, with her 
sucking mouth pai'ts, through which the food is taken, inserted in 
the tissues of the plant," as shown in Fig. 44S, c. The females 
become full grown in about eighl to ten w(H>ks, when they lay 
from 40 to 100 eggs and then die. In the North there is but one 
generation a year, but from the District of Columl)ia southward 
there is a partial or complete second generation. When the male 
insects are full grown they emerge from the scales as two-winged 
flies, as shown greatly enlarged in l''ig. !4S, at n, fertilize the 
females and die at once. 
Control. — See Ix'low. 

Ihe Scurfy Scale * 

" The Scurfy Scale, while infesting a considerable number of 
plants (some 35 in number), is a less general feeder than the 
preceding species. It occurs principally upon rosaceous plants, 
such as the apple, peach, pear, plum, cherry, etc., and also on 
currant and gooseberry among cultivated plants, l)ut seldom 
becomes so abundant as to cause particular injury or require 
specific treatment." It is especially connnon on apple and pear 
and less so on cherry and peach, though it has been ol^served as 
quite destructive to peach in the South, greatly stunting the 
trees, though none were actually killed. The female scale is a 
dirty-gray color, irregularly shaped as shown in Fig. 449, c. 
The male scale is much smaller, elongate, snowy white, and with 
three distinct ridges, Fig. 449, d. It is an American insect, being 
common from southern Canada to the Gulf States. The life 
history, as far as known, is practically identical with that of the 
last species. 

Control. — As the last two species are practically identical in 
habits, they may be controlled by the same methods. Where 
the trees are sprayed with lime-sulfur wash for the San Jose 

* C/i/ono.s/j/s furfura P^itch. Family Coccidce. See Quaintance and 
Sasscer, I.e. 



596 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

scale, there will be but little trouble with these scales, and where 
specific treatment is required for tlu^n experiments indicate 
that a thorough coating witli the lime-sulfur wash while tlu^ ti-ees 
are dormant, j^referably in the spring just befoi-e the buds open, 
is one of the most effective remedies. Tiie wasii does not seem 
to kill the eggs, but to kill the young soon after hatching, and has 
been used successfully on both fruit and shade trees, but if there 
be frequent rains in late spring, so that it is washed off, or if the 




Fig. 449.— The scurfy scale {Cldoiid.^pis Jurjurn Fitch): a, c, females, 
b, d, males— a, b, natural size, c, d, enlarged. (Alter Howard, U. S. 
Dept. Agr.) 

scales arc very thick, it is not alwa}'s entirely effective. In 
England a 3 per cent caustic soda wash has proven very satisfactory 
for killing the winter eggs. Recent experiments made by Professor 
R. A. Cooley in Montana * show that emulsions of linseed or 
cottonseed oils arc very satisfactory when applied either in the 
spring or as the eggs are hatching, and were more effective than 

* R. A. Coolev, Journal of Economic Entomology, ni,^p. 57; R. L, 
Webster, ibid. IV," p. 202. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 597 

other insecticides tested. These emulsions are prepared the same 
as kerosene emulsion (p. 48), using one gallon of the oil, and. 
J to 1 pound of soap to 10 or 12 gallons of water. When the eggs 
are hatching and the young are crawling the trees may be sprayed 
with the above or 15 per .cent kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil 
soap, 1 pound to 4 or 5 gallons of water. The effectiveness of 
the last two insecticides seems to vaiy according to local conditions, 
as they have proven satisfactory in certain experini(!nts and of 
less value in othei's. As for the San Jose scale, the trees or shrubs 
to be treated should first be pruned of the dead and worst-infested 
wood, and loose bark scraped off, so that the bark may be thor- 
oughly covered. 

Apple Plant-lice * 

Several species of aphides or |)lant-Iice commonly infest the 
foliage of the apple, and less commonly that of the pear, and 
though they differ somewhat in appearance and habits they are 
sufficiently alike to be discussc^d together, as the same methods 
of control apply to all. 

The Apple-aphis f 

This is the common apple-aphis of Europe, and was first 
noticed in this country late in the last century, when it spread to 
all parts of the country within a few years, probably being dis- 
tributed on nursery ti'ces. . Onl}' }'oung trees arc usually much 
injured by this and the following species of aphides, old trees 
rarely being injured, except that where the aphides are excess- 
ively al^undant they sometimes injure the young fruit, causing 
it to become stunted and misshapen. The foliage of young trees 
soon becomes covered with the vemiin, which feed on the under 
surfaces of the leaves, causing them to curl up and then droj^. 

*See Sanderson, 13th Report, Del. Agr. Exp. Sta.; A. L. Quaintance, 
Circular 81, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Gillette and Taylor, 
Bulletin 13.3, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

t Aphis pomi DeG. Family Aphididce. See above references, and J. B. 
Smith, Bulletin 143, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta.; C. P. Gillette, Journal of Economic 
Entomology, Vol. I, p. 303. 



598 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

This curling of ilic foliage is more commonly caused by this 
species than any other, though the rosy apple-aphis has a similar 
effect. The aphides secrete the sweet honey-dew very profusely 
and so attract large numl)ers of ants, which feed upon it. The 
ants are a'ways found associated with them, and the preseiwe of 
mimerous ants on a tree is a good indication of aphides. The 
honey-dew soon covers badly infest(xl foliage and upon it there 




»i 



^( 



Vw. 450. — The iipplc-aphis {Aphis pond Dk^^j.): 1, young stem mother; 
2, adult .stem mother; 3, adult apterous viviparous female; second 
generation; 4, young female, second generation; .5, winged viviparous 
female of third generation; (i, pupa of preceding; 7 and 8, apterous 
male anrl oviparous female — all enlarged as indicated. (After Gillette 
and Taylor.) 

grows a blackish fungus which gives the leaves a sooty appear- 
ance, often visible on the twigs after they drop, and a good 
indication of injury by this sjjecies. The full-grown wingless 
females are about one-twelfth inch long, and shaped as shown 
in Fig. 450. Thev are of a bright green color, though occasion- 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 599 

ally yellowish, and the tips of the antennae, honey-tubes, and tail 
are black. The winged female is slightly longer and the wings 




Fig. 451. — The apple-aphis, wiiif^ed viviparous female — greatly enlarued. 

expand al)()ut onc-qiiai'tor inch, the head is deep olive lirown; 
the thorax is blackish, and there are tliree Idack spots on the 




Fig. 452. — Xymjjhs of the apj)le-aphis, (dustered on a leaf, showing develoijing 

wing-pads. 

'ateral margin of the alxlomen, Init otherwise it is coloi'ed like the 
wingiess female. 

Life History. — The minute, oval, shining black eggs are 



600 



INSECT PESTS OF FATIAI, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



to be found ou the twigs during the winter, csjjccially lit the 
crotches and around buds and scars. Tiicy hatch just before 
the leaf buds open and the young aphides become full grown in 
two or three weeks, all of them being wingless. During the next 
two or three weeks each of these females will give Inrth to from 
50 to 100 young, a few of whicli develop wings. All of the aphides 




Fig. 453. — The api)lo-:ii)his; a, young irco ijartialiy dcfoliatetl by the aphis; 
({, winter e}2;f2;s on twi}i;. 

of this second genei'ation are also females, which give birth to 
live young without tlu^ intervention of nud(\s, which do not appear 
until fall. Their young develop in a week or ten days and most 
of them become winged and migrate to other trees. The develop- 
ment and reproduction contimies in this fashion throughout the 
summer, l)oth winged and wingless females being foiuul in most 
colonies, though the size and coloration differ in the various 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 601 

generations. Those which are to become winged may be dis- 
tinguished after the third molt by the blackish wing-pads at 
the sides of the body. With the first frosts of faH the young 
develop into true males and females. Both are wingless, the 
male being much the smaller, has long antennae, is yellowish or 
rusty-brown, and is very active, while the female is larger, moves 
more slowly and is lighter in color, l)ut later becomes a very 
dark green. The sexes mate and the females lay 1 to 3 eggs in the 
places mentioned. All of the aphides die by late fall and the 
eggs remain to give rise to new colonies in the spring. 

AA'ith the rapid nudtiplication above described it is not surpris- 




Fici. 454. — The apple-aphis, winged fall inigranta on leaf — natural wize. 

ing that the foliage is soon covered with thousands of aphides, 
and that with so many sucking the sap the leaves soon curl up 
and dru}). This is often a serious di-ain upon the vitality of 
young trees, stunting their growth, and so weakening them that 
they are more lialjle to be attacked b}' other insects and diseases, 
while the premature dropping of the foliage prevents the full 
growth of the tree and the proper hardening of the w^ood before 
winter. This species shows marked preference for certain varieties 
of apples and rarely injures others. Apple, pear and quince are 
the only fruit trees infested by this species, which lives upon 
them throughout the year. 



602 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Rosy Apple-aphis * 

This species is larger tluiii the preceding, with a rounder body, 
and is commonly of a ros}- color, though the wingless females 
vary from a salmon or tan color to slaty gray, purplish or black. 
It has been injurious only to apple in this country, where it has 
become widely distributed, but in Europe its native food-plants 
are various wild species of Sorbu>i and Cratcegus. The wingless 
female is about one-tenth inch long, the head, thorax and margin 
of the abdomen being dark reddish-l)rown, and covered with a 




Via. 155. — The ro.sy apple-aphis (Aijltin .surbt Kal(.): winged viviparous 
female greatly enlarged. 

powdery substance which gives it a tleep blue color, the middle 
of the abdomen being lighter yellowish. The antennae and legs 
are whitish, mai-k(xl with dusky. The honej'-tubes are pale yellow, 
tipped with black, and are long and ta])ering. Between the eyes 
are two small tubercles, and on the middle of the two segments 
in front of the tail are a pair of similar small tubercles, which 
are quite characteristic of this species. When fully developed 
the female becomes much dark(>r and distended with young, which 

* Aphis sorbi Kalenbach. Family Aphidida;. See Sanderson, and Gillette 
and Taylor {Aphis pyri Boyer), cited above; and W. E. Britton, 9th Report, 
State Entomologist of Connecticut, p. 343. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR mi 

may be seen through the abdomen. The wmgecl female is about 
the same length, the head, thorax and honey-tubes being black, 
and the abdomen yellowish- red. The winged females in the fall 
differ from those of the spring in lacking the small tubercles 
between the eyes, but both spring and fall winged females have 
the two pairs of small tubercles in front of the tail. They also 
differ in having a large black splotch on the centre of the abdomen, 
bands across the terminal abdominal segments, and spots along 
the sides, also black. The male is winged and similar to the winged 
viviparous females which migrate back to the apple in fall. 

The egg-laying females are 
wingless, very much smaller 
than the summer forms, and 
light lemon-yellow in color. 

Life History. — The eggs oc- 
cur on the twigs, as do those 
of the last species, hatch about 
the same time, and the first 
two or three generations de- 
velop on the app c in the 
same manner. Like the last 
species, the third generation 
is mostly whiged females 
Fig. 456.—The rosy apple-aphis wingloss .^,^,| migrate from the apple 
viviparous female — great! v enlarged. 

to some unknown food-plant, 

on which they pass the summer. The winged females I'eturn to 
the apple foliage in the fall and then give birth to young, which 
develop into the true males and females, which may be found la}'ing 
their eggs in company with the last and other species. 

This species curls the leaves, as does the apple-aphis, and is 
likewise accompanied by ants. Dr. Britton states that " the 
rosy apple-aphis . . . seems especially prone to attack the fruit 
spurs and inner portions of the tr(>e-top rather than the terminal 
twigs and exterior part," and that it " affects seriously the 
growth of the fruit," preventing its growth and development, 
and causing it to be gnarled and irregular in shape, similar to the 
damage sometimes observed bj^ the last species. 




604 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The European Grain-aphis * 

This species is found on the apple, pear, quince and plum in the 
spring and fall and on the small grains and various grasses during 
the summer. Until recently it has been the more common form 
on apple in the East, but is not now so numerous as the apple- 
aphis. It is an old European species and was evidently imported 
to this country at an early date, as it is widely distributed through- 
out the United States. The wingless females are distinctly 





Fig. 4.57. — The European {Jiniin-aphis {Siphocorync avena; Fab.): wingle.ss 
viviparou.s female, anil efr;g-layiiig or oviparous female — greatly enlarged. 

smaller than the ])revi()us species, and are of a light green color, 
nuirkcd with transverse diamond-shaped bands of darker green 
across the abdominal segments. The honey-tubes are shorter, 
distinctly (>nlarged at the middle and flared at the tip, which 

* SipJioamjne avencc Fab. Family Aphididce. See Th. Pergaiide, Bulletin 
44, n. s., Div. P^nt., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 5 and authors cited above. The 
author described this species as .l/)/(/.s fitchii in 1902, and although there 
seems to be no question that it feeds on grains and grasses during the summer, 
there are several reasons for believing that there are either two species or 
that the life history has not been sufficiently observed. Thus in some sections 
it is exceedingly common on grain l>ut rare on apple, and in others just the 
opposite condition is found. Further observation may solve these anomalies. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



605 



distinguish the species of this genus. The winged female has 
the head and thorax blackish, and the abdomen yellowish-green 
or brownish, usually lacking the greenish bands of the wingless 
form, and the honej'-tubes are brown wath rusty spots around the 
base. The species may be distinguished by the very short second 
fork of the median vein at the tip of the fore- wings. 

Life Hisfori/. — The eggs are found on the apple and pear, and 
the first two generations in the spring develop as do those of the 




Fig. 458. — The European grain-aphis, migrating winged viviparous female 
of the second generation — gi-catly enlarged. 

preceding species. All of the second, or sometimes the third, 
generation become winged and migrate to small grains and 
grasses, on which they feed during the summer. In the fall 
winged females return to the fruit trees and give birth to young, 
which develop into wingless females and winged males, which mate 
and produce the winter eggs. Pcrgande states that " the species 
is biennial and that the progen}- of the spring migrants from the 
apple subsist almost exclusively upon various grains and grasses 
until the fall of the second year, when a generation of return 
migrants makes its appearance." This is certainly true in the 
South, where the aphides may be observed on grains throughout 



606 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

the winter, but it may ):)e questioned whether they usually survive 
the winter on grains or grasses in the North. 

Professor F. M. Webster* has observed this species on wheat in 
Ohio, and states that in mild winters it remains on the wheat, 
going down on the stems to just below the surface of the soil or 
to the upper roots, as we have observed it in Texas. " Here they 
go on reproducing when the temperature is favo]'al)le," he sa3's, 
" the adults being aptei'ous so far as observed by me, until spring, 
when they ascend to the foliage, the adults after this being both 
winged and wingless. On the stems and roots below the surface 
of the ground they are of a greenish color, tinged with reddish- 
brown, especially posteriorly, the full-grown individuals often 
being wholly of a dark brown. It is during autumn that the}' 
do their greatest injury to the wheat by sucking the juices from 
the young plants, often, if on poor land and if in dry weather, 
checking their growth and causing the foliage to turn yellow." 
This species is seldom much in evidence on grains or grasses in 
midsummer and rarely becomes very injurious to them. On 
the apple it is abundant on the young foliage and particularly 
on the flower Inids and blossoms, where it is much more common 
than the other species. It does not, however, curl the foliage 
nearly as severely as the other species, due to its earlier migra- 
tion. 

The Clover-aphis j 

This species is more particularly a clover pest, but is mentioned 
because it oviposits on apple and pear and may be confused with 
other species in spring and full. It has been observed in Colorado 
and has been injui-ious to clover in Iowa, but its further distribution 
is unknown. Th(> wingless fcnnak^ of the first generation varies 
from a daik gi-een streaked and mottled with red to a deep dark 
red, with honey-tubes very short and pale yellow thi-oughout. 
The second gencn-ation are light green or yellowish-green and 

* See BuUedn 51, Ohio Agr. Exp. Station, p. 111. 

t Aphis baker i Cowen. Family Aphididoe. See Gillette and Taylor, I.e.; 
C. P. Gillette, Journal Economic Ent., Vol. I, p. 364. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 607 

the sumincr generations on clover are pink or }eIlowish, with 
a large pale orange spot around the base of each honey-tube. 
Concerning this species Gillette and Taylor give the following: 
" The clover aphis, A. hakeri, infests the cultivated and sweet 
clovers and alfalfa throughout the warmer part of the year when^, 
apparently, it never occurs in the oviparous form noi' as eggs. 
In the fall a portion of the winged lice migrate to apple and i)ear 
trees, where eggs are deposited to live over winter and hatch into 
the i-ed stem mothers the following spring," hatching a week or 
two l)efoi-e the apple-aphis. " The descendants of thes(> stem 
females begin in the second generation to get wings and by the 
middle of June nearly all have left the trees and gone back to the 
clovers, though some I'cmaiu on the apj)ie all summer. In the 
fall, many of the lice continue uj)on the clovers, going down close 
to the ground as col<l w(>atliei' comes on, and if the wiutei" is not 
V(>i-y severe, nuuiy will sui'vi\-e and continue to live and iiu-rease 
upon these jjlants thi'oughoul the year. 80 fai- as oui' observa- 
tions have gone this louse ranks next to the green apple-aj)lus 
(Aphis ponii) in numlx'i's as a leaf-infesting species of the apple, 
. . . but \vv can hardly consider it a serious pest as yet in Coloiadcj 
orchards." Evidently the life histoiy closely j)arallels that of the 
previous species, S. arenfc. 

Cofdrol. — Recent experiments ha\-e shown that llme-snifnr 
wash applied while the trees ai'e doiinant, as for the San Jose 
scale, will kill nearly all ai)hid eggs. l*ure crude petroleum luis 
also proven effective against the eggs in sevei-al experiments. 
Recently Professor (lillette has i'ej)()i'ted * experiments which 
indicate that tobacco extracts will destroy the eggs when used at 
various dilutions according to the strength of the extract, but 
though these preparations may be effective, further field experi- 
ments will be necessary to (l(>t(M-min(> the exact dilution bc^st for 
orchard use. Spraying foi- the aphides after they hatch should be 
done before they commence to curl the leaves, preferably just as the 
foliage is expanding, for after the leaves are curled it is impossible 
to reach them with the spray successfully. Kerosene emulsion 
* C. P. Gillette, Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. Ill, p. 207. 



608 INSECT PESTS OF FARiM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

containing 7 per cent kerosene, whale-oil soap 1 pound to 5 or 6 
gallons, dilute miscible oils, or tobacco extracts will destroy 
the aphides. The spray should be applied with some force, so as 
to hit all of the .aphides and to penetrate the hairy terminals of 
the apple. Where trees are being sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, 
whale-oil soap or tobacco extracts may be added to it, to save 
separate spraying. 

The Tent Caterpillar * 

From the earliest times the webs of the tent caterpillar have 
adorned the neglected, wayside apple and cheriy trees in all 
parts of the country east of the Rock}- Mountains. On the 
Pacific Coast a nearly related species has very similar habits. The 
adult moths are common in July in th(^ North or in May in the 
Gulf States. The}- are stout-bodied, of a reddish-l)rown color, 
with two nearly parallel white bands extending obliquely across 
the fore-wings. The females have a wing expanse of al)0ut 
1^ inches, while the males are smaller and may l^e distinguished 
by their feather}' antenna;. The sexes soon mate and the females 
deposit their eggs about five or six weeks afler apples blossom. 
The egg-mass is from one-half to three-ciuarters inch long and 
forms a grayish-brown, knot-like liand aroimd the twig on which 
it is laid, closely resembling the bark in color. ICacli mass con- 
tains about 200 eggs, placed on end, j)acked closely together and 
covered with a light-brown, frothy gku;, which giv(\s a tough, 
smooth, glistening surface to the whole mass. Tlu^ little cater- 
pillars hatch just as the leaf buds are expaiiding in th(> spring. 
Ofttimes they emerge before the leaf buds liav(; expanded suf- 
ficiently to furnish any food, in which case they satisfy their 
hunger with the glutinous covering of the egg-mass, spinning a 
thin web over it. Soon they are al)le to bore into the buds and 
a web is commenced at the nearest ci'otch. Wild cherry and 

* Malacasoma americana Fab. Family Las ioco nip idee. See A. L. Quaint- 
ance. Circular 98, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; V. H. Lowe, 
Bulletin 152, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.; E. P. Felt, 14th Report State Ent. N. Y., 
pp. 177-190. 





Fig. 450 



Fig. 460 




Fig. 461 




Tlio Tent Caterpillar. 



Fig. 462 



Fig. 459. — Egg mass on twig — natural size. 

Fig. 460. — Egg mass covered with web of newly-hatched caterpillars. 

Fig. 461. — Newly-formed web. 

Fig. 462. — Web bearing half-grown caterpillars — reduced in size. 



609 



610 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



apple aro tho favorite food-plants and aie often stripped of their 
foliage year after year, hut all of the eonmion fruit ti'ees are more 
or less freciuented, and when very abunchmt the common shade 
trees ar(> attacked and occasionally one is defoliated. The 
little caterpillars from one eoo-mass co-operate in spinning the 
tent wliicii fui'nishes them sheltei' at night and during cold or 
wet weather. Tiiis is gradually enlarged witii new hiyers of silk, 
the caterpillars living beneath tiie outer layers. The caterpil- 
lars are gi-own in five 
or six weeks, when they 
become exceedingly 
I'estless and wander 
away from the nest 
in search of suitable 
places foi' spinning their 
cocoons. The full- 
grown catei'pillar is 
about 2 inches long, 
deep black in cojoi', 
sjiarsely covered with 
yellowish hairs, with a 
white stiipe dow-n the 
middle of the back. On 
th{> side of each .seg- 
ment is an oval pale 
l)lue spot with a broader 
velvety black spot ad- 
joining it in front, giv- 
ing somewhat the effect 
of an eye-spot. Having found a suitable place under loose 
l)ark, in a fence, in the grass or rubbish beneath the tree, 
or in the shelter of some neighboring building, the caterpillar 
settles down and proceeds to encase itself in a thin cocoon of 
tough white silk, in which it transfoi-ms to the pupa. About 
three weeks later the adult moth emerge.s from the pupa to con- 
tinue the life cycle, there being but one generation a year. 




Fig. 463. — Tent (■ateri)illars on web — one- 
half natural size. (Photo by Weed.) 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 611 

The caterpillars are held in check by numerous parasitic 
insects, some 24 species having been found preying upon them 
by Mr. W. F. Fiske in New Hampshire,* as well as by predaceous 
soldier bugs {Podisus spp.) and many of our common Ijirds. 
Large numbers of the caterpillars are also carried off by a bacterial 
disease. When nearly full grown the caterpillars become sick 
and sluggish, and soon become flaccid and the skin is easily 
ruptured, permitting the escape of the body fluids. Several 





Fig. 4G4. — Tent cater[)illars, back and side view — 1$ times natural size. 

species of little chalcis-flies are parasitic in the eggs and destroy 
a large proportion of them. Were it not for these natural enemies 
the tent caterpillar woidd become a much more serious pest. 

Control. — The egg-masses may easily be detected and pruned 
ofT during the winter, and it would be well to leave them in a box 
covered with netting so that the parasites may escape. Neglected 
apple and wild-cherry trees should be destroyed, as they harbor 
this and other pests and are usually valueless. The caterpillars 
may be quickly destroyed l)y spraying with Paris green or arsenate 
of lead just after the foliage comes out, before the ti'ces l)lossom. 
* See W. F. Fiske. Tech. Bulletin 6. N. H. Agr. Exp. St:;. 




Fig. 465. — The tent caterpillar moth. (After Lowe.) 




Fig. 466.— Cccocng of the tent caterpillar, Fig. 467.— Web of the tent eater- 
natural size. (After Lowe.) pillar riddled by birds. (Photo 

by Weed.) 612 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



613 



If there arc but a few nests the caterpillars may be destroyed 
in them by spraying the nest on a cloudy or cool day with pure 
kerosene. Apply the spray with an extension rod and fin(^ nozzle 
so that the nest will be thoroughly soaked, without spraying the 
surrounding foliage. Or the caterpillars may be destroyed by Ijurn- 
ing the nests with a torch while they arc in them, or while young 
they may be swabbed out with a ])r()om or l)rus]i and crushed. 



ijrNf 



The Yellow-necked Apple Caterpillar * 

During late summer the tips of apple limbs arc often found 
defoliated for a foot or 
two and if examined a 
mass of caterpillars will be 
found huddled together as 
if confessedly guilty. Usual- 
ly these will prove to be- 
long to this or the following 
species. The full-grown 
yellow-necked apple cater- 
pillar is about 2 inches 
long, with a jet black head 
and the next segment, 
often called the neck, a 
bright orange yellow, from 
which the insect is named. 
Down the middle of the 
back runs a black stripe, 
and on either side of the 
body are three stripes of 
black alternating with four 
of yellow and the body 
is thinly clothed with 
long, soft white hairs. 

* Datana ministra Drury. Family Notodontidcc. See A. S. Packard, 
Memoirs National Academy of Sciences, Vol. VII, p. 106; E. D. Sanderson, 
Bulletin 139, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 213. 




Fig. 468. — Yellow-necked apple cater- 
l)illars assembled on apple twig in 
natm'al position — from life, much 
reduced. 



614 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



While young the caterpillars feed only on the under 
surfaces of the leaves, but as they become larger the whole leaf, 
except the stem, is devoured. They feed together in colonies, 
usually starting at the tip of a limb, where the eggs were laid, 
and stripping the foliage toward the base, and are often found 
clustered together in a solid mass. If the limb is jarred or a 
caterpillar touched, it at once assumes a position characteristic 
of this genus, throwing the head and tail in the air with a jerk 

and clinging to the limb by 
the abdominal prolegs, as 
sliow'n in Fig. 468. The wings 
of the adult moth expand 
about two inches and are a 
reddish-brown color, while the 
head and thorax are chestnut 
brown. The fore-wings have 
three to five transverse lines, 
one or two spots, and the 
outer margin of a dark color, 
and the hind-wings are pale 
ye' lo wish without markings. 

Life History. — The winter 
is passed in th(> pupal stage 
in the soil, from which th(> 
moths (^merge from May to 
July. The round, white eggs 
are laid on the leaves in massifs of 7a to 100, and hatch during 
mid-summer. The caterpilhws feed dui-ing the late summer and 
become full grcnvn in four oi- five weeks, when they enter the 
earth for from 2 to 4 indues and there transform to naked 
brown pupa% without making any cocoons. There is but one 
generation in the Northern and Middle States. 

The .species occurs throughout the Northern and Middle States 
east of the Rocky mountains, and in the far South there seem to 
be no records of iho species. Though most common on apple, it 
also feeds on pear, cherry, quince, and plum, and on hickory, 




Fi<i. 469. — Th(> yollow-neckod apple 
caterinllar (Dalmia minislra Dru.): 
matiiro larva' and moth — natural .size. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



615 



oak, walnut, chestnut and other shade and forest trees, some- 
times defoliating them, as do other nearly related species. 

Control. — As the work of these caterpillars is soon noticed, 
and as they habituall}^ feed in colonies, it is an easy matter to 
hand pick and destroy them, or swab them off the limbs with a 
rag or waste saturated with kerosene, or where a colony is clustered 
at the tip of a limb, it may be cut off and crushed. If this and 
other caterpillars are abundant on the foliage in late summer, 
it will be well to spray with arsenate of lead 3 pounds to the barrel 
while the caterpillars are small, which will be about six to eight 
weeks after the apple blossoms fall. 

The Red-humped Apple Caterpillar * 

This species is often associated with the preceding in very 
similar injury, and has practically the same habits. The 
name is given on account of 
the prominent hump on the 
fourth segment of the larva, 
which with the head is a l)right 
coral red. The mature cater- 
pillar is striped with yellowish- 
white, alternating with dark 
brown or blackish lines, and a 
double row of black spines ex- 
tends along the back. The fore- 
wings of the moth oxpantl about 
1^ inches, n,re dark brown on 
the inner and grayish on the 
outer margin; they have 
a dark-brown dot near the 
middle, a spot near each angle, 
and several longitudinal streaks 
of the same color along the 
posterior margin. The hind- 

* Schizura concinna Smith and Abbott. Family Notodoniidoe. See A. S. 
Packard, Memoirs National Academy of Sciences, Vol. VII, p. 212; E. D. 
Sanderson, Bulletin 139, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 216. 




Fig. 470. — The red-humped apple 
caterpillar {Schizura concinna 
S, & A.) — sHghtly enlarged. 



616 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



wings of the male are brownish and of the female dusky 
brown, the l)ody is light l)rown with the thorax of a darker shade. 
This species occurs thi-oughovit the Ignited States and feeds on 
apple, plum, rose, thorn, cherry, blackberiy, willow, oak, hickory, 
and other trees and shrubs. The caterpillars become full grown 
in late summer or early fall and then spin loose silken cocoons to 

which are attached l)its of 
eailh and rubbish, so that 
they closely reseml)le their 
surroundings as they lie 
on the ground l)eneath 
rubl)ish, or just under the 
surface of the soil. After 
some time the larva' trans- 
form to pupa', in which 
stage the wintei' is passed. 
Otherwise the life history 
is pi'actically the same as 
the preceding species, ex- 
cept that there is some 
cN-idence of there being two 
generaticjus in the South. The larvie of this species are very 
frequently parasitized by little ichneumon-flies * which destroy 
whole colonies of them while still young, the inflated skins being 
found on the under side of a leaf, often perforated l)y the 
round exit holes of the parasites. 

Control. — Same as for the preceding species. 




Pig. 471.— Eggs of the rod-hiinii)0(l 
;i])i)lc f'.ateri)illar — enlarged. 



The Apple Leaf-miner j 

This is the most connnon leaf -miner of the apple and makes 
small brown trumpet-shaped blotches under the upper surfaces 

* Limneria fugitiva Say, and L. aedemasioe Ashm. Family Ichneumonidoe. 

t Tischeria malifoUella Clemens. Family Tineidoe. See A. L. Quaintance, 
Bulletin 68, Part III, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; ('. D. Jarvis, 
Bulletin 45, Storrs (Conn.) .A.gr. Exp. Sta.; C. O. Houghton, Bulletin 87, 
Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 617 

of the leaves. It has not been regarded as a serious pest until 
recently, but during the last few years it has become so abundant 
as to do serious injury to apple foliage in New England and the 
Middle Atlantic States, in some instances largely defoliating the 
trees. It is a native insect which is generally distributed east of 
the Rocky Mountains. 

The adult is a little moth whose wings expand about one-third 
inch and are broadly fringed as shown in the figure. Clemens 
describes it as follows: " Head and antennae shining dark brown, 
face ochreous. Fore-wings uniform, shining dark brown with a 
purplish tinge, slightly dusted with pale ochreous; cilia of the 



Fig. 472. — 'rrumpet-shiiped mine of the apple leaf-miner {Tischcria uialifo- 
liella Clem.). (Photo by Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

general hue. Hind-wings dark gi-ay; cilia with a rufous tinge." 
The full-grown larva is onc-t hiid inch long, somewhat flattened, 
and tapers fi-oni the bi-oad thorax to the last segment. It is 
light green except tiic Ijack of the prothorax and the anal seg- 
ment, which are brown. 

Life Hialonj. — The moths emerge in late April -n Delaware" and 
in May in Connecticut. The small greenish-yellow. Ijlister-like 
eggs are elliptical in outline, about on(>-fifticth inch long, and are 
attached closely to the surface of the leaf. They hatch in fi-oni 
eight to ten days and the young larvie mine directly into the leaf 
from the under side of the eggs. The larvae become full grown in 
about three weeks and pupate in their mines, the pupal stage 
lasting eight to ten da}-s. Thus the whole life cycle requirps 



618 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

but about thirty-three clays in the District of Cohimbia, where 
there are four generations a year, and about six weeks in Con- 
necticut, where there are but two generations. The larvae of 
the last generation line their mines with silk and in them pass the 
winter in the fallen leaves, transforming to pupa? the next spring. 

Control. — As the larva pass the winter in the fallen leaves, the 
insect may be entirely controlled l^y plowing under the leaves 
in late fall or early spring or by raking them up and burning them. 
When the larvae become so abundant as to threaten serious injury 
in summer they may be killed in their mines by spraying the 
foliage with 10 to 15 per cent kerosene emulsion, Init this is 
not satisfactorv in the earlv fall. 



The Pistol Case-bearer * and the Cigar Case-bearer f 

These interesting little case-bearers have long been known as 
apple insects, but onl}' in comparatively recent years have they 




Fig. 473. — The pi.stol cavse-bearer {Colcophora vialivordla Riley): a, apple 
twig showing larval cases and work on leaves; b, larva; c, pupa; (/, 
moth; b, c, d, enlarged. (After Riley.) 

done sufficient injury to attract attention. Both species have 
done serious damage in New York by boring into the young buds 

* Coleophora tnalivorella Riley. Family Elachididoe. See V. H. Lowe. 
Bulletin 122, N. Y. .\gr. Exp. Sta. 

t Coleophora Jletcherella Fernald. Family Elachididce. See M. V. Slinger- 
land, Bulletin 93, C'ornoll Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; A. G. Hammar, Bulletin 80, 
Part II, Bureau of Entomology, V, . S. Dept. Agr. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



Gl<) 



and blossoms, and eating off tlie surface of the leaves, so that in 
some cases orchards have been practically defoliated. The pistol 
case-bearer seems to be generally distril^uted over the eastern 
United States and southern Canada, while the cigar case-bearer 
is known to occur in southern Canada from Nova Scotia to British 
Columbia, in New York, Michigan, Kansas and New Mexico. 
As both insects are readily carried on nursery stock they are 
doubtless much more widely distributed than the records indi- 
cate. 

JAfe History. — The life histories of both species are very similar 




Fig. 474. — The cigar case-bearer (Coleophora flelcherella Fernald): a, adult 
female; b, side view of pupa and upper view of cremaster of same; 
c, larva; d, egg; e, venation of wings — much enlarged. (After Hammar, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

and have been most interestingly described in detail by the 
authors cited. The young caterpillars hibernate in their little 
cases, which are attached to the twigs usually near or upon the 
buds. 

Those of the pistol case-bearer are about one-eighth inch long 
and resemble the bark in color. A short time before the leaf- 
buds burst in the spring, the larvsB become active and attack 
the growing buds, gnawing through the outer cover to feed on 
the tender tissues beneath. Later they feed on the young 
leaves, making small holes through the surface and feeding on 
the soft tissue within in much the same manner as a true leaf- 



620 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



miner. In feeding they do not leave the case, but reach 
out as far as possible from it. As they grow they enlarge 
their cases, which finally assume the shape characteristic of 
the species. 

Those of the cigar case-bearer are straight and resemble 
a miniature cigar, being of a brown color and composed of 
bits of leaf bound together with silk. The cases of the pistol 
case-bearer resemble an old-fashioned pistol in shape, the butt 

being at the upper end, and 
are blackish, being composed 
of excrement and silk. As 
the caterpillars become larger 
they devour the entire leaf, 
except the midrib and large 
veins, and also attack the 
flower ])uds, flowers and fruit. 
The larva' of the cigar case- 
hearer become full g]'own 
ul)out the middle of June n 
\ew York, when they mi- 
grate to the twigs, whei'e they 
attach their cases firndy to 
the bark and, turning around 
so that their heads are out- 
ward, transform to pupa). 




Fig. 475. — The ciiscs of the cigar 
cusc-bearer : a, upper view of the 
eigiir-shapcd case; showing the 
smooth antl the hairy sides and the 
three-lobed hind opening; b, side 
view of same; c, the case as it 
ai)pears in the spring with the tube- 
like addition; (/, the fall and winter 
case — much enhirged. (After Ham- 
mar, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



The pupal stage lasts ten or 
twelve days, most of the moths emerging in early July. The 
pistol case-bearers become fidl grown and transform about a 
month earlier. The adults of l)oth sp(M'ies arc little grayish 
moths with wings expanding about one-half inch, and l)roadly 
fringed with long hairs. The eggs of both species are laid singly 
on the under sides of tlu> leaves and hatch in ten days to two weeks. 
The young caterpillars which hatch from them feed within the 
leaf for a short time as leaf-miners, before they make their 
little cases and migrate to the twigs, where they remain until 
spring. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 621 




¥iG. -176. — A])])le leaf with cigar case-bearers at work — natural size. (After 
Hamniar, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

Control. — Spraying with Paris ^voon or arsenate of lead just 
before the leaf buds open and again as soon as the foliage is out, 
will destroy the little caterpillars. 



The Bud Moth * 

This is a European species which was first noted in this countr}' 
in 1841, and has since spread throughout the Northern and Middle 
States east of the Rocky Mountains and to Oregon and Idaho. 
The larviB feed on all of the common deciduous fruit trees, and 
blackberry, but are most commonly injurious to apple. The 
adult moth is a dark ash gray with broad yellowish bands across 
the fore-wings, which expand about five-eighths inch. The 
full-grown caterpillar is one-half inch long, of a light chestnut- 

* Tmetocera ocellana Schiff. Family Tortricidce. See M. V. Slingerland , 
Bulletin 107, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; W. p]. Britton, 9th Report, State 
Entomologist of Connecticut, p. 353. 



622 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

brown color, with the head, legs and thoracic shield dark brown 

or black, smooth and shin}-. 

Life History. — The larvie hibernate in small, oval, silken cases 

attached to the bark of a twig. About the time the buds begin 
_ to swell in the spring, the caterpillars 

l)ore into them, thus early protecting 
themselves from insecticides. As the 
young leaves and flowers unfold, the 
caterpillars form nests for themselves 
by tying the leaves together, and de- 
stroy the young foliage and flower buds, 
l)ut do not leave the nests in feeding. 
In New York, they become full grown 

during June, and transform to pupae in the silk-lined nests. 

About ten days later the moths emerge and lay the eggs 

singlv or in small clusters on the under surface of the leaves. 




Fig. 477.— The bud moth 
(Tmetocera o cellana 
Schiff.)— twice natural 
size. (After W. E. 
Britton.) 




Fig. 478. — Youn^ apple leaves infested by the bud moth larva. (After 

W. E. Britton.) 

The egg is disk-like, much flattened, usually oval in shape, 
and transparent, resembling a minute drop of water. The 
eggs soon hatch and the young caterpillars feed on the under 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 623 



sides of the leaves, protecting themselves by a thin silken 
web. In the fall they migrate to the twigs and form the small 
silken cases in which they pass the winter. 

Control. — Dr. Britton reports that the caterpillars may be 




Fig. 479. — Apple leaf injured by the bud moth caterpillar — natui-al size. 
(After W. E. Britton.) 

effectively destroyed by spraying with arsenate of lead 1 pound 
to 10 gallons, which should be applied just as the buds are bursting 
&nd again before the trees blossom. 



624 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Codling Moth * 

The coiimion upple worm, the hirvu of the codling moth, is 
prol)ably the best known and most generally destructive of all 
the apple insects. It is an old European insect and has Ijecn 
distributed to almost all parts of the world where apples are 




.:,<,- C 



d 




Fig. 480. — The codling moth {Cydia pomonella Linn.): a, egg — greatly 
enlarged; b, young larva hatching from egg; c, larva in winter cocoon 
on in.side of a bit of bark; d, j)upa — original; e, moth — after Slinger- 
land — all much enlarged. 

grown. The " wormy " apple is so well known that the work 
of the larva needs no description, but the aggregate loss which 
it occasions is not always appreciated, as most of the injured 

* Cydia pomonella Limi. P'amily Tortricldce. See A. L. Quaintance, 
Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1907, p. 435; E. L. Jenne, Bulletin 80, Part I, 
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; C. B. Simpson, Bulletin 41, n. s., 
Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr.; E. D. Sanderson, Bulletin 143, N. H. Agr. Exp. 
Sta.; and bulletins of the State Agrcultural Experiment Stations. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



625 



fruit drops and no account is kept of the windfalls, and if the picked 
fruit is not seriously infested the grower does not notice that he 
has lost a large part of the crop, though where the pest is abundant 
so much of the fruit is injured that but little remains to be picked 
on unsprayed trees. In 1907 Professor Quaintance estimated 
the annual loss due to this 
insect in the I'nited States at 
al)out $12,000,000. 

The moths fly at dusk and 
are I'arcly seen, as during the 
day they rest on the bark 
which thoy closely resemble 
in color. The wings expand 
about three-quarters inch and 
have somewhat the appear- 
ance of grayish-brown watered 
silk, but when more closely 
examined arv seen to l)e 
crossed ])y numerous lines of 
gray and brown scales. Near 
the hind angle of each front 
wing is a large dark brown 
spot marked with streaks of 
brown or gold. The hind- 
wings are of a lighter grayish- 
brown color, darker toward 
the outer margin. 



L Jk 


1 - WMJ 


• ■ 


^^^HB^Stfj^S] 


1 




#\-^ '^^' J 






r'% 


" 



Fig. 4S1. — Cocoons of codling moth as 
found attached to a piece of loose 
bark — natural size. (After Slinger- 
land.) 



Life History. — The winter is passed Ijy the full-grown larvae in 
their small white cocoons beneath or in crevices of the bark. 
About the time the apples blossom the larvjB transform to small 
brown pupie, from which the moths emerge in two to three weeks. 
If the evenings be warm the females commence to deposit their 
eggs within a few days, laying most of them on the foliage. A 
female lays from 60 to 75 eggs, and though most of them are 
placed on leaves near the young fruit, ofttimes they are deposited 
on limbs or trees with no fruit. 



626 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



like a small white blister about the size of a pinhead. It is at 
first quite transparent, but later a brownish or blackish streak 
is seen, showing the little caterpillar foi-ming within. The eggs 
hatch in from five to ten days, depending upon the season and 
temperature, most of them hatching about three or four weeks 
after the blossoms fall. 

The young apple worm is at first only about one-sixteenth 
inch long, of a whitish color, with a shining black head, and 
with distinct blackish tubercles over the body, which become 
quite indistinct in later life. Upon hatching the young larva 
usually feeds a little on the tender parts of the leaves before 
it crawls to the nearest apple, which is probably 8 or 10 




Fi(!. 482. — Pupa> of codling moth in focoons — enlarged. (After Slingerland.) 

inches distant. About two-thirds of the larva? entei' the apples 
through the l)lossom end and feed a little within the calyx before 
th(\v bore inward to the core. The others enter at the stem end 
or at the si(l(», where a leaf may touch the ai)i)l(\ The seeds of 
the apple seem to be most relished, for the larva soon hollows 
out each of them as well as the surrounding core, its work being 
indicated by the well-known excreta thrown out from the calyx, 
showing the " worminess " of the apple. The laiva Ix'comes full 
grown in from three to four weeks and eats its way out through 
the side of the apple, leaving a round exit hole, and seeks a place 
to form its cocoon. The fvill-grown caterpillar is about three- 
quarters inch long, whitish or pinkish in color, with a brown head 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAK 627 




and faint tubercles over tiie Ixxly, and with three pairs of thoracic 
legs and five pairs of abdominal prolegs. The cocoons are found 
mostly on the trunks of the trees, as in winter. The pupal 
stage of the first summer gen- 
eration lasts ten to twelve 
days, and the moths emerge 
about eight weeks after the 
eggs were laid. 

In northern New England 
but 2 or 'A per cent of the 
larva' pupate, the majority 
hibernating over winter, so 
that there is ))ut a small 
second generation. Further 
south a large nund)er trans- 
form and in the Middle States 
there are two full generations. 
In the far South, as in Georgia, 
Arkansas and New Mexico, 
there are three generations 
In any event the larva^ leave the apples in the fall and hiber- 
nate in their cocoons, those l)ut partly grown usually dying 

before spring. The life cycle 
of the second and third gen- 
erations are essentially the 
same as that of the first, 
except that a large pi'opoi-- 
tion of the eggs are laid on 
the fi'uit and more of the lar- 
va' enter the apples through 
the sides or stem end. The 
woi'k of the larva> of the 
latei' broods is also some- 
what different, as mucii of 
it consists of eating around the blossom end or on the face 
of the apple, eating out small holes or tunneling under the 



Fio. 483. — Pupa skin of codling- moth 
remaining attached to cocoon — on- 
hirged. 




Fig. 484. — Young larva of codhng mot h 
in calyx cavity of apple — enlarged. 



628 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



.skin, as shown in Fig. 489. Wlien two or three generations 
occur, the injury by them often becoms very severe if the 
first generation has not been largely destroyed by thorough 
sprayinir. Xevy similar injury is done by the larv» of the lesser 

apple worm,* which is very difficult to 
distinguish, but fortunately the same 
treatment will control both pests. 

Control. — Scraping the loose bark from 
I he trees and keeping the bark smooth 
removes the favorable conditions for the 
hibernation of the larva. A large pro- 
[jortion of the hibernating larv» are 
destroyed by woodpeckers and nut- 
hatches during the winter and they 
should be attracted to the orchards 
by hanging up bones and suet. Pick- 
ing up the fallen apples and destroying 
them before th(^ larva3 have; left them to 
form their cocoons will do much to 
mitigate the numbers and will aid in 
the control of other insects. Cellars and 
storage houses where apples are kept 
over Avinter should be screened to pre- 
vent the exit of the moths in the spiing. 
The principal method of control, how- 
ever, is in spraying with arsenicals, 
which, when properly done, will destroy 
practically all of the larvae. Although Paris green and arsenite 
of lime (p. 43) have long been used for this purpose, arsenate of 
lead is now preferred on account of its superior adhesive quahties 
and because there is less danger of burning the foliage with it. 
Where Bordeaux mixture is sprayed for fungous diseases at the 
same time Paris green may be applied with it and the Bordeaux 




Fig. 485. — Larva of the 
codling moth only a 
few (laj's old, showing 
tubercles — much en- 
larged. (After Slinger- 
land.) 



* Enarmonia prunivora Walsh. Family Tortricidce. See A. L. Quaintance. 
Bulletin GS, Part V, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Foster and 
Jones, Bulletin SO, Part III, ibid. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



61^9 



will cause it to adhere as well as arsenate of lead and there w ill be 
little danger of burning with a good (quality of Paris green. One- 
third pound per barrel of Paris green, 2 or 3 pounds of arsenate of 
lead, or 1 quart of stock solution of arsenite of lime are the proper 
strengths for general use. Tlu^ first spraying for the codling moth 
should be given just after the blossoms have fallen and l)efore 
the sepals of the calyx close, the object being to place the poison 
in the calyx cavity so that the little larva will be poisoned when it 
enters and feeds in the calyx a few weeks later. In general this 




Fig. 486. — Full grown larva of the codling moth — enlarged about three 
times. (After SHngerland.) 

spraying should be given within a week or ten days after two- 
thirds of the petals have dropped, but the time will depend upon 
the variet}- and the season. 

In the West great emphasis has recently been placed upon 
using a coarse spray with a high pressure, 100 to 250 pounds, 
which will drive the spray through the bases of the stamens 
into the lower calyx cavity, and though excellent result are 
undoubtedly secured in this way, experiments in the East 
indicate that a mist spray is equally effective if thoroughly 
applied, whether the lower calyx cavity is reached or not. 
There is no question, however, of the importance of maintaining 



630 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

ii j;oo(l pi'c.ssui'c. of at least 100 pounds, so that the spray may l)o 
forced tlirou.uli the foHaii'e: t'oi' the blossoms })oiiit in all dii'eetions^ 
and the sj^ray must he foicecl thi-ou_<;h the tree to reach those point- 
ing inward on the op])osite side. To do thorough work the man 
spraying should stand on a tower which will place him level with 
the middle of the tre(\ so that with an extension rod all parts may 
be readily reached. An ansile on the end of the rod which will 




Fig. 487. — Young apjjles in right condition to s|)ray for the codling moth 
and with calyx .sepals closed too far for effective spraying. (After 
Quaintance, U. S. Dcpt. Agr.) 

turn the noz/de at 3.5 or 45 degrees will greatly aid in I'eaching 
all parts of the tre(\ 

The second sjjraying should be applied three or four 
weeks after the blossoms fall, just as the eggs are hatching 
At this time the object should be to cover the foliage thor- 
oughly, so that the young larvte may be killed while they feed 
on th(^ foliage. Conse([U('ntly both the u})])ei' and under surfaces 
of the leaves shoukl l)e coated. If the first spraying has been well 
done, the second will often be unnecessary where there is but 
a partial second brood or where the pest is well under control, 
l)ut as it is often necessar}- to spray for the fungous diseases 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



(5.31 



at tliis time it is well to add the ai'senical, which but slightly 
increases the cost. Where there is a full second generation, as 
in most of the Middle and Pacific States, a third application as 




Fig. 488. — Work of the first generation of codlino; moth larvae. 

the second genei'ation of larvse are hatching, will l)e found advis- 
able about nine or t(Mi weeks after the petals fall, and a fourth 
two or three weeks later may be necessary. With thorough spray- 




Fic!. 489. — Wnik of the second i^eneratioti of codlinu; moth hirva;. 

ing not over J or '2 pei' cent of the picked fruit siiould ))e wormy, 
as most of the wormy fruit will drop earl\' in the season. 

In moimtainous districts, or where it is difficult to secure water, 
dusting the trees with Paris green IjIowii l)y a dusting machine 
has been cjuite extensively practiced. Although this treatment 



632 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

largel}' reduces the injuiy, cureful experiiuenl.s lutvc shown that 
it is much less effective tliau liquid spraying, and as it is not 
satis "actory ^or the control of fungous diseases, the liquid spray- 
ing is to be preferred where feasible. 

The Apple-maggot or '* Railroad Worm " * 

The apple-maggot has long been known as the worst pest of 
summer and fall apples in the New England States, and has 
extended its injuries to eastern New York and southeastern 
Canada. It has been recorded from Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, 
Minnesota, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, but seems to be only 
occasionally injurious there, though it has been reared from haws 
in Illinois and Wisconsin, which would indicate that the insect 
is native in those States. Evidently it is widely disti'ibuted 
throughovit the northeastern United States, but for some reason 
is most injurious in New England. The fruit is injured l)y the 
small white maggots, which burrow through the flesh, leaving 
discolored streaks through it, often becoming so numerous as to 
entirely honeycomb the pulp which breaks down into a yellowish 
mass merely held together by the skin. An apple quite fair 
exteriorly will often be found to be almost completely " rail- 
roaded " l)y tlie maggots, although browni, slightly sunken 
streaks in the skin usually indicate their presence. Sweet and 
subacid varieties of summer and (>arly fall apples arc worst injured, 
but where the pest develops unchecked, winter sorts, such as the 
Baldwin and ))ai'ticularly the Xoithei-n Spy, are often seriously 
injured. 

The parent of the maggot is a little fly slightly smaller than 
the house-fly, of a blackish color, with yellowish head and legs, 
greenish eyes, and three or four white bands across the abdomen. 
The wings are marked by four black bands, as shown in Fig. 490, 
which distinguish it from similar flics found on apples. 

* Rhugoletis pomonella Walsh. Family Trifpctidce. See A. L. Quaintance, 
Circular 101, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; F. L. Harvey. Report 
Maine .\gr. Exp. Sta., 1889, p. 190; W. C. O'Kane, Journal of Economic 
Eutomology, IV, 173. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO. THE APPLE AND PEAR 



633 



Life Hislonj. — The flies emerge during July in New England 
and live for several weeks. The females at once commence 
depositing their eggs in the early varieties of apples. The eggs 
are laitl just under the skin in a vertical position, on the cheek of 
the apple. The egg is elliptical, al)out one-thirtieth inch long, 
and yellowish in color. A female will lay 300 to 400 eggs, 12 
or 15 often being placed in a single apple. The eggs hatch in 
four or five days and the little maggots at once burrow into the 
pulp. By means of a vertical motion of the head they rasp the 
pulp with the small, Ijlack hook-like mouth parts, and in less than 




Fig. 490. — The apple-maggot (Rhagoletis pomonella Walsli): a, adult; h, 
larva or maggot; c, funnel of spiracle on head; d, puparium; e, portion 
of apple showing injury by maggots; a, b, d — enlarged; e — reduced. 
(After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

a minute can tunnel their own length. They become full grown 
in four to six weeks during the summer, but if only parth' grown 
when winter sets in, many of them seem to hibernate until spring. 
The mature maggot is about one-third inch long, yellowish-white, 
footless, much like similar maggots, and distinguishable by the 
microscopic characters of the spiracles of the first and last seg- 
ments. The mature maggot goes just beneath the surface of the 
ground, where its skin hardens to a puparium in which the pupa 
is formed, in which stage the winter is passed. In barrels or 
storage places the maggots pupate beneath the apples, and 
occasionally a puparium is found in the burrow of the maggot 



634 INSECT PEST.S OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCIiARD 



within an upplc. Most of llu- pupariu aic williin 1 or 2 inches of 
the surface. There is but one generation a year. 

Control. — As most of the affected fruit drops to the ground, 
during sununer it should be picked up twice a week and destroyed 
before the maggots have left to it pupate. Where this is carefully 
done injury by the pest is greatly reduced. Particular attention 
should be given to the destruction of infested summer apples. 
Hogs pastured in the orchard will do this work admirably, and 
where there are but a few trees on bare or cultivated ground 
chickens will destroy the larva\ Plowing the orchard deeply 
as early as feasible in spring and keeping it well cultivated in early 
summer will bury the puparia so as to greatly lessen injury, which 
is always worse in uncultivated sod orchards. As yet no method 
of spraying has been used which shows any effect on this pest, 
as the maggots inside the apple cannot be reached by a spray, 
but Qxperiments ai'e now being made in New Hampshire which 
may show a method of killing the adult Hies, as has been done with 
a similar pest in the oi-chards in South Africa. 

The Apple Curculio * 

The apple curculio has been commonly confused with the plum 
curculio (p. 576), but is by no means as .common or injurious, and 




Fk;. 491. — Tlu' ai)])l(' curculio {Anthonomus quadrigibbus Say): «, b, adult 
beetles; c, larva; d, pupa — all enlarged. (After Riley.) 

is quite distinct in both appearance and habits. The adult l)eetle 

is about the same size as the plum curculio, but more reddish- 

* Anthonomits quddrigibbus Say. Family Curculionidce. See (". S. 
Crandall, Bulletin 9S, 111. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 514; F. E. Brooks, Bulletin ]'_'♦>, 
W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. p. 113. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 



635 




hrown in color, the abdomen is more robnst, and I he wing-covers 
bear four prominent humps, the anterior l)eing much larger than 
those on the plum curcuHo. The snout of the apple curculio is 
as long as the rest of the body and is held straight forward from 
the head, instead of hanging 
down as does the snout of the 
plum curculio. The work of 
the apple curculio is also diffei- 
ent in that after laying the 
egg in a small cavity in the 
fruit, no crescent-shaped mark 
is made around it. The apple 
curculio is a native species 
which l)reeds in wild haw, 
wild crab, and wild cherry, 
and has been reared in plum, 
quince and pear. " It has 
been reported from Connecti- 
cut and Ontario south to 
Xorth Carolina and westward 
as far as Xew Mexico. It 
seems to have been more 
troublesome in Missouri, Illi- 
nois and other mid-western 
States than elsewhere," but 
has never done an^'thing like 
the injury due to the plum 
curculio and can hardly be 
regarded as a serious pest. 

Life History. — The beetles 
commence laying eggs in the 
fruit soon after the blossoms drop and continue for a period of sixty 
days, an individual female laying about 65 eggs. The eggs hatch 
in about five tla3's and the larva' feed on the flesh of the apple 
for about twenty days, when they transform to pupae within the 




Fig. 492. — Work of the apple curculio; 
a, a', c, c', feeding punctures from 
the surface and in section; h, b', egg 
punctures from the surface and in 
section. (After C. S. Crandall.) 



fruit. 



A week later the beetles emerge, but feed very little during 



636 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

the late aummcr before they enter hiberiiution for tlie winter, 
most of them leaving the trees by the latter part of August. 

The lai'va is a footless, whitish grub a half inch long when full 
grown with a hump-backed appearance clue to the enlargement 
of the anterior abdominal segments, which })revcnts the larva 
from straightening out. The beetles injure^ tlie fruit l)y puncturing 
it for feeding and for the deposition of c>ggs, causing it to become 
dimpled and gnarled as does the plum curculio, and the larvu) feed 
within the fruit, mining the flesh, in which they undergo their 
complete development. 

Control. — Thickets of wild ci-ab or hawthorn trees should be 
destroyed wherever near an orchard, for the beetles will l)reed in 
their fruit and then migrate to the orchard. Jarring as for the 
plum curculio may be practiced on young trees, and spraying as 
for that species will doubtless largely reduce the injury. Usually 
this insect is not sufficiently injurious to warrant special treatment 
where its native food-plants are not overabundant near the 
orchard. 

The Pear Leaf Blister-mite * 

The pear leaf blister-mite has long been known as a pest of pear 
foliage wherever the pear is grown, and has similarly affected apple 
foliage in Europe, but only in recent years has it become a serious 
pest of apple foliage in New York, New England, Ontario and 
Pennsylvania. Just why it should suddenly become an apple 
pest after having occurred in this country for years without 
noticeably injuring it is a mystery, though dry seasons may 
possibly be accountable for it. 

The work of the mites is recognized by reddish blisters forming 

on the young foliage, which later turn blackish and have a corky 

texture. Badly affected leaves drop, so that a tree is often largely 

defoliated, and where the mites are al)undant the}- attack the 

young; fruit. 

* Eriophyes pyri Pgst. Class Arachnida. Order Acarina. Family 
EriophyidcBs with which are associated several nearly related species with 
similar habits. See Parrot t, Hodgkiss and Schoene, Bulletins 2S3 and 306, 
X. y. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 087 

The miles are not true insects, as they belong to the same class 
as the spiders, scorpions, and ticks. One of the more common 
larger mites is the red spider of greenhouses, which affects flower- 
ing plants, vegetable crops, and fruits of all sorts. These little 
blister-mites are of microscopic size, only 1 ''100 to 1/200 inch in 
length, so that they can only be seen with a lens, and must be 
examined with a compound microscope to distinguish the species. 
One is shown much magnified in Fig. 493. They are elongate, 
with two pairs of legs, and slender abdomens, composed of oO 
to 80 small rings, frequently marked with rows of small tul)ei-cles 
and ornamented with a few hairs and bristles. 

Life History. — The mites spend the winter in the buds, and 




Fig. 493. ^The pear leaf blister-mite (Eriophye.<i pyri Pgst.): highly magni- 
fied. (After Parrot t.) 

as warm weather approaches in the s})ring tlu'\' Ix'coine active 
and move toward the base of the growing l)ud scales and feed 
there. As the young leaves unfold the mites migrate to them. 
Thoy burrow through the surface of the leaf and feed upon the 
succulent tissue within, setting up an irritation which soon ivsults 
in reddish spots en the surface. Within these mines the eggs 
are laid, as many as 14 having been found in a single blistei-. 
The young hatch in about a week and burrow arountl in all 
directions, feeding on the tissues and juices. When full grown 
they leave the gall through small openings in the under surface 
and start new colonies which produce similar galls. The}' con- 
tinue to reproduce and migrate throughout the summer, and under 
favorable conditions become numerous enough to completely 



638 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

infest the new leaves as they appear. In the fall the}- leave the 
leaves to hibernate in the buds as already described. 

On pear the blistei's are at first greenish pimples, wliich l^eeome 
reddish and later l)rilliant red ]:)listers, and finally they become 
l)rown or black and the tissue corky. When numerous the 




Fig. 494. — Old leaf clLi-ster with galls of pear loaf blister-mite on apple fruit 
and leaves. (After Parrott, Hodgkiss and Schoene.) 

galls coalesce, Forniing daik l)r()\\ii jialches over ihe leaf, wliich 
often break open, jjarticularly along the edges of the leaves. 
On the blossom ends of the fruit and on the stems they produce 
light-colored |)imples, which do not seem to injure the fruit. 
On apple the blisters are less brilliantly colored than on pear, 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 639 

and become a liglit brown or dark green color on tlie upper leaf 
surface and uniformly brown beneath, looking something like 
the work of the apple rust. The young fruit is sometimes attacked^ 
on which small green pimples, which later make blister-like spots 
or pock marks, are made toward the blossom ends, but which 
do not seem to cause much damage. 

Control.— The mites may be controlled by spraying with 
10 per cent kerosene emulsion, miscible oils, or lime-sulfur wash 
used the same as for the San Jose scale. Spraying should be 
done in October or November as soon as possil)le after a majority 
of the leaves have fallen, as many of the mites are still in the 
jjul)escence of the young wood, whei'e they are more easily de- 
stroyed than when under the bud scales. In spring spray just 
as the buds begin to break and show the tips of the young leaves; 
spraying later than this will injure the foliage, and earlier spraying 
is not as effective. By using lime-sulfur in the spring, the usual 
tr(>atment with Bordeaux mixture for diseases at that time is 
unnecessary. Where infestation is serious both fall and spring 
sprayings should be given; otherwise the fall spraying is the 
better. The buds and new growth should be thoroughly drenched, 
while the rough bark of the trunk and old limbs may be neglected 
as far as the mites are concerned. Where pear trees are but 
slightly infested, the spread of the pest may often be preventetl 
by simply pruning out and burning the infested twigs upon the 
first appearance of injury. 

The Pear Psylla * 

Where the pear psylla is abundant, pear growers have come 
to fear it next to the San Jose scale, and until recently owners 
in eastern New York became so discouraged in their attempt to 
control it that orchards were cut down. It is an old European 
pest and was first noted in Connecticut in 1832, since when it has 
spread southward to Maryland and Virginia and westward to 

* Faylla pip'icula Foerst. Family Fsyllidce. See M. V. Slingerland, 
Bulletins 44 and lOS, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; ('. L. Marlatt, Circular 
7, Div. Ent., r. S. Dept. Agr. 



640 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



Michigan and Illinois, in which States it has done considerable 
injury. The psyllas are nearl}' related to the plant-lice and are 
sometimes called jumping plant-lice, on account of the habit of 
the adults of giving a quick jump and flying from the foliage 
when disturbed. Like tli(> plant-lice they reproduce very rapidl}' 
and suck the juices from the foliage and fruit, l^suall}- the first 
indication of the pest is the presence of large quantities of honey- 
dew, secreted by the nymphs, with which the foliage becomes 
covered, and which attracts numerous ants. When the psyllas 
are numerous the leaves and fruit become coated with this sticky 






Fig. 495.— The pear psylhi (Pfiijlla pyricola Foerst) : adult , full-grown nymph 
and ogg — all greatly enlarged in different proportions. (After Slinger- 
land.) 

substance and it even drops from them like rain and runs dow-n 
the trunk. A blackish fungus grows on the honey-dew- and is 
always a good indication of the presence of the psylhi. 

Badly infested trees are so injured by loss of sap that they 
shed their leaves in midsummer, the lower ones l)eing the first 
to turn yellow and drop. The young fruit also drop from l)adly 
infested trees, w'hich make but little growth, as the young shoots 
are often attacked and wither early in the season. 

The adult psylhi is about one-tenth inch long, of a reddish- 
crimson color wnth Ijrownish-black markings, bronzy eyes and 
dark wing- veins, looking very much like a miniature cicada or 
dog-dav harvest-fly. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE AND PEAR 641 

Life History. — The adults hibernate over winter in crevices 
of the bark and there lay their eggs late in April or early May 
on the twigs or around the buds. The egg is about one- 
eighteenth inch long, hai'dly perceptible without a lens, and 
orange-yellow in color. It is pear-shaped with the small end 
drawn out into a long thread, and the larger end is attached to 
the bark by a short stalk (Fig. 495). The later generations 
deposit the eggs on the leaves often in rows or bunches. The eggs 
hatch in two to three weeks and the young nymphs feed on the 
leaf petioles in the axils of the leaves and later on the leaves, 
}'Oung fruit and tender shoots, from which they suck the sap. 
The nj'mph is a peculiar-looking little bug, broadly oval, flattened, 
of a yellowish color, with crimson eyes, but later becomes reddish 
with black markings and conspicuous black wing-pads, as shown 
in Fig. 495. They move very slowly and are frequently quite 
covered by their own hone5^-dew\ After molting some four or 
five times, they finally transform to adults in about a month. 
According to Slingerland there are four generations in New York 
and probably five in Maryland. 

Control. — As the adults hibernate over winter in the bai'k 
the treatment advised for the pear leaf lilister-mitc furnishes the 
best means of control for the psylla, and winter treatment is 
absolutely essential for its successful control. Otherwise, the 
best time to spray is in the spring just after the eggs have hatched 
and before the nymphs have secreted much honey-dew. If 
winter or spring spraying has been neglected, the trees should be 
thoroughly sprayed with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 4 gallons, 
or 10 per cent kerosene emulsion, or dilute miscibic oils. Spraying 
sliould l)e done after a shower, which will wash much of the honej'- 
dew off, as the chief difficulty in summer spraying is to reach the 
n^'mphs through the thick coating of honey-dew with which thev 
are covered. 01)viously the spray should be applied with /on 
siderable pressure in a coarse si)i'ay. 



G-42 IN. SECT TESTS OF 1<'AKM, GARDEN AND OKCliAKD 

The Pear Slug * 

Not infrequently the foliage of pear and cherry, and occasionally 
of plum, trees turns l)rown in midsummer, which is found to be due 
to small, slimy, slug-like larvae which have eaten off the surfaces 
of the leaves. The Pear Slug is a common pest throughout the 
country, having l)een known here for over a century. It is an 
old European pest and has l^ecome flistributed to many of the 




Fio. 496. — The pear slug {Eriocatnpoides limacina Retz.): a, adult female 
saw-fly; h, larva with slime removed; c, same in normal state; d, leaves 
with larva? — natural size; a, h, c, much enlarged. (After Marlatt, 
U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

Bi'itish colonies in various parts of the world. The parent insect 
is a small saw-fly, about one-fifth inch long, glossy lilack, with 
four wings which are iridescent, with a smoky band across the 
middle, and which are folded over th(> l)ack when at rest. 

Life Histori/. — The flies are abroad by the time the foliage is 
well out, by the middle of A|)ril in Maryland and late May or early 
.hme in Xew I'jigland. Like most of the saw-flies the female is 
furnished with a strong ovipositor with saw-like teeth at the 

* Kriocainpoides litiuicina Retzius. Family TenOiredinidce. See ('. F. 
Marlatt, Circular 26, Div. Ent., U. 8. Dept. Agr 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO I'llE xVI'l'LE AND PEAK ()48 

tip, with which she cuts a little blister-like cell beneath the upper 
surface of the leaf, in which the egg is deposited, as shown in Fig. 
497. The egg hatches in about two weeks and the little larva 
makes its way out of the cell through a crescent-shaped cut. 

The young larva is at first nearly white, except the yellowish- 
brown head, but very soon a slimy or gluey olive-colored liquid 
exudes from over the entire body, giving it the appearance of a 
minute slug, from which it gets its name. The head is now dark 
brown, appearing almost black under the slime, and the bodj'^ is 
also darker. The anterior segments are much swollen, concealing 
the head and the thoracic legs. The abdomen Ls furnished with 




Fig. 497. — Illustrating method of oviposition and emergence of the pear 
slug: a, cutting of cell beneath epidermis, showing the tip of the ovi- 
positor; h, the cell after the egg has been deposited; c, same after 
escape of the larva — all much enlarged. (After Marlatt U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

seven pairs of prolegs, the usual pair on the last segment being 
wanting so that the tip of the abdomen is slightly elevated. The 
little slugs commence eating out small bits of the upper surface 
of the leaf, which they gradualh' enlarge luitil nearly the whole 
upper surface is denuded, leaving merely a network of veins, 
held together by the brown epidermis of the lower surface, which 
is nearly intact. Leaves thus injured tui-n brown, die and drop 
so that a tree will sometimes be nearly defoliated, except for the 
new growth which starts out. The larvae grow rapidly, becoming 
full grown in about twentv-five davs, when thev are about one- 



644 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

half inch long. When full grown the larva molts for the fifth 
time and loses its olive-green slimy appearance, becoming a 
light orange-}'ellow color, clean and dry, with a light-colored 
head marked by only the small circular black eye-spots on the 
sides. 

The larva now enters the ground for an inch or two, where 
it forms a small cell, which is moistened with saliva so that the 
walls become somewhat impervious to water. In six or eight 
days it transforms to the pupa and in about two weeks after 
the larva entered the ground the adult fly digs its way out of 
the soil. Some of the larvae of each generation, and all of those 
of the last generation remain in the soil over winter and trans- 
form to pupae the next spring. At Washington, D. C, the first 
generation of larvae disappear by the end of June and the second 
generation are most abundant in early July, when the principal 
injury is done, which is probably followed by a third generation. 
Further north there are but two generations, the second appearing 
in August. 

Control. — By spraying with any of the arsenicals when the 
work of the slugs is first noticed on the foliage they may be 
quickly destroyed. Whale-oil soap, or other soap, 1 pound to 
4 gallons, will also destroy the larvae as a contact insecticid(>. 
Hellebore, air-slaked lime, or almost any finely divided dust, 
thoroughly dusted over the trees will also destroy most of the 
larvae, which are very readily killed. In gardens where water 
undei- pi-essure is available, the slugs may ho washed off by a jet 
fi'om a hose, as they are fi-equently washed off by heavy rains, 
and are much less injurious in wet seasons. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH, PLUM, CHERRY AND STONE 

FRUITS * 

The Peach Borer j 

Wherever peaches are grown they are subject to the attacks 
of the ever-present borers, and if neglected will soon succumb 
to their injury. East of the Rocky Mountains the common peach- 
tree borer has been known since the earliest settlements, and it 
also occurs in Colorado and Oregon. It is a native insect which 
probably lived on wild cherry and wild plum, and is known to 
attack plum, prune, apricot and nectarine, though chiefly a 
peach pest. On the Pacific Coast a nearly related species, the 
California peach-tree borer, | does similar injury and has very 
similar habits. The lesser peach borer § is commonly associated 
with the common peach borer and has done considerable injury 
in western New York, Maryland, Virginia and Georgia. It occurs 
throughout the country and is doubtless commonly confused with 
the larger and more common species. Although it is quite different 
in its life history and habits, the injury is very similar, and as it 
must be controlled by the same methods it need not be separately 
considered. 

The presence of the borers may be detected by the mass of 
gummy, gelatinous material, more or less mixed with soil, wliicli 

* See J. B. Smith, Bulletin 235, N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

t Sanninoidea exitiosa Say. Family Sesiidce. See Quaintance, Yearbook 
U. S. Dept. Agr., 1905, p. 330; M. V. Slingerland, Bulletin 176, Cornell Univ. 
Agr. Exp. Sta.; H. N. Starnes, Bulletin 73, Geo. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

X Sanninoidea opalescens Hy. Ed. See C. VV. Woodworth, Bulletin 143, 
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

§ Synanthedon pictipes G. & R. See A. A. Girault, Bulletin 68, Part 
IV, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 

645 



646 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

exudes from the crowns of trees injured by them. The injury 
is done by the larva; feeding on the soft inner bark of the crown 
of the root, the adjacent roots and the base of the trunk. Often 
the huva' will completel}' girdle a tree and where a tree is infested 
by several boners, the foliage tuins yi'llow and if not treated will 
soon di(>. Such a tree is nmcli moi'e susceptible to the attacks 
of bark beetles and diseases. Probably as many peach trees 




Fi(i. 498. — Peach borer moths {Sanninoidea exitiosa Say) — natural .size. 
The upper one and the one at right are females, the other two males. 
(After Slingerland.) 

are lost fioiii the work of Ijorci's as from any other one pest, with 
the possil)le exception of tlu^ San Jose scale. 

The adults are clear-winged motiis wiiicli H}- during the day 
and might be i-eadily mistaken for wasps. The females are a 
deep steel-l)kie with a broad oi'ange band across the abdomen. 
The for(!-wings are opacjue, covered by tiie bluisli scales, and 
expand a))out 1 1 inches, while tlie hind-wings ai'i' transparent 
except the dark margin. The males are smaller, with the wings 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRTTITS 



047 



clear except the margins and a line across the fore-wings, and 
the abdomen is marked with three or four narrow yellow stripes. 

Life Histori/. — The moths emerge in New Yoi'k and Xew Jersey 
from the middle of July to the latter part of August, at Wash- 
ington, D. C. from the middle of June until mid-September, 
the majority emerging in late July, while in Georgia the majority 
emerge in late August and early September. As there is liut one 
generation a year, the time of emer- 
gence in these different latitudes is 
decidedly anomalous when compared 
with the life histories of other insects. 
The females soon lay their eggs, pre- 
ferring to place them on the base of 
the trunk, but often placing them 
higher, or even on weeds or trash, 
or on the soil. A single female may 
lay from 200 to SOO eggs. Th(^ eggs 
are about one -fiftieth inch long, and 
slightly over half as wide, truncate 
at one end, and a light chestnut brown 
or reddish-lirown in coloi-, not easily 
seen on the bark of the tree. They 
hatch in about ten days and the 
young larvio at once seek out small 
cracks in the bark through which they 
enter the soft bark of the tree. Theii- 
presence may be easily detected b}' 
the powdery, l)rownish frass which 
they throw out of their Ijurrows. The 
young larva^ grow I'apidly and con- 
tinue feeding until forced into hibci'nation by cold weather, 
and in the South doubtless feed during warm days in the winter. 
Feeding is resumed in the spring, the ]arva> boring through the 
lower layers of the bark and causing masses of gum to exude as 
already described. Larvte of almost all sizes may usually be found 
in late spring, and the resulting moths appear iiTegularly over 




Fig. 499. — Eggs of the 
peach borer: natural size 
at 11 ; an egg great ly en- 
larged at /; and end of 
egg greatly magnified, 
showing mioropyle at m. 
(After Slingei'land.) 



G48 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

a period of two to three luoiiths. It seems pr()l)al)le that some 
of the larvijo which hatch from eggs in late summer or early fall, 
do not become moths until the second subsequent season, so 
that they live in parts of three years, though the life cycle may 
occupy two years. The full-grown borer is a light yellowish 
larva about 1 inch long, with a brown head and thoracic legs, 
and five pairs of prolegs on the abdomen. The body is 
sparsely clothed with brownish hairs which arise from small, 
smooth tubercles. The grown larva constructs a cocoon at or 
near the surface of the ground, usually on the trunk near the 





Fig. .500. — The pencil borer larva, natural size ami enlarged. (After 

Slingerland.) 

burrow, but often on the soil, which is composed of particles 
of excrement and bark, bound together with gum and a thin 
lining of silk. In this it transforms to a brown pupa from wdiich 
tile moth emerges in about three w^eeks. 

Control. — One of the best means of preventing injur}' and 
making the removal of the borers easier is to mound the soil 
around the trunk as high as possible, just before the moths emerge 
in the summer. This forces them to lay their eggs high up on the 
trunk, where the little borers may later be readily found. In some 
way this mounding seems to prevent the establishment of the 
young larvae, as several experimenters have found that from half 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 



649 



to three-fourths of the borers are kept out of the trees in this 
way. In the early fall the earth should be leveled down to 
facilitate finding the little larvic. Oviposition on the lower 
trunk may also be prevented l\y wrapping the trunk with Ixiilding 
paper, or any heavy paper, which should extend well into the soil 
below and be tied tightly just below the crotch at the top. Such 
wrapping may be used to 
advantage with the mound- 
ing up of the earth and 
thus largely prevent ovi- 
position. The wrappers 
should be applied before the 
moths appear and be re- 
moved in the early fall. 
Various washes composed 
of soaps, lime, glue, cement, 
carbolic acid, and various 
other ingredients have been 
commonly recommended 
and widely used for pre- 
venting the laying of the 
eggs and the entrance of 
the young larvae, but care- 
ful tests have failed to 
show their value. Doubt- 
less this is due to the 
roughness of the bark of 
the peach, over which it is 
difficult to make a com- 
plete coating, and the little 
larvae will enter through the 

smallest crevice. Some wash which would penetrate the burrows 
of the young larvae and destroy them, as does the avenarius car- 
bolineum with the bark beetles (p. 546), would seem to be the 
most promising line of treatment, and some of the washes which 
have been extensively used by practical growers should be critically 



■^^HSI^ -'.iJb 


i 






m 


L 


mB^^^^^S 




>.<♦ 


■Kap^^Bj^wi^a 


f^^K' 








#-' 




m4 




^^^^*^^^'- 


m 

IS 





Fig. 501. — Work of a single peach 
borer, natural size: w, b, burrow of 
borer; g, gummy mass; p, pupa project' 
ing from cocoon. (After Slingerland.) 



650 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

tested on a coiniiiercial scale. After reducing the number of 
borers by mounding and wrapping the grower must resort to 
the old-fashioned method of " worming " the trees, by digging 
them out by hand. This should be done in the fall and again in 
late si3ring. Professor Starnes strongly recommends that in 
Georgia the chief dependence be placed upon the fall worming, 
as most of the young larvtc are then found upon the surface bark 
of the tree, more or less involved in a mass of gum and excreta, 
with which they may be readily scraped from the tree, according 
to his observations. For this work he recommends a small 
curved steel blade or hook about 4 or o inches long inserted in 
a wooden handle a foot in length. In the North fall worming 
seems to be less satisfactory. For spring work in excavating 
the larger worms, a sharp knife and a stout wire are commonly 
used, although many prefer a blacksmith's hoof-knife or similar 
tools which are specially constructed for the work. 

The Peach Twig-borer * 

On the Pacific Coast the Peach Twig-borer, often known there 
as the peach worm, is one of the most serious pests of the peach. 
In the Eastern States it has been injurious in Delaware, Virginia 
and Maryland, but only occasionally. Probably the insect occurs 
throughout the country wherever the peach is grown, as it is 
an old European insect which was first noticed in the United 
States in 1860. On the Pacific Coast the over-wintering larva) 
bore into the tender shoots in early spring and during the summer 
bore into the fruit, particularly the later varieties. Prune, nec- 
tarine, apricot, almond, and pear are also injured. 

The adult moth is a dark-gray color, with fore-wings expanding 
about one-half inch and marked with darker spots. The full 
grown larva is about one-half inch long, of a didl reddish-brown 
color with dark brown or blackish head. 

Life History.—" The insect passes the winter as a veiy small 

* Aiiarsia Uneatella Zell. Family Gelechiidce. See W. T. Clarke, Bulletin 
144, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta.; C. L. Marlatt, Bulletin 10, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. 
Dept. Agr.; A. L. Quaintance, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr.. 1005. p. 344. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 



651 



larva in silkcii-liiietl cells or burrows in tlic spungy tissue of the 
bark at the crotches of the limbs. Their presence is indicated 
by small mounds of conmiinutcd bark, as shown in Fig. 503, at a 
and b. Early in the spring, as the foliage is putting out, the 
larvse begin to leave their burrows and attack the tender shoots, 
boring into and down the pith, the galleries ranging from about 
one-third inch to l^- inches in length. The shoot thus injured 
soon wilts and dies, as shown in Fig. 504, at a. Many shoots may 
be attacked by a single lai-va 
which is thus capable of doing 
considerable harm. There are 
two or tlii'ee generations of 
lai'vse diuing the summer in 
the West, those of the second 
and third attacking the fruit, 
the later varieties being the 
worst injured. According to 
Professor C. V. Piper, the 
larva enters the peach at the 
stem end, usually boring into 
the pit, the seed of which it 
seems to prefer, usually cau.s- 
ing the stone to split as the 
fruit ripens; or simply the 
flesh may be tunnelled, de- 
pending on whether or not 




Fig. 502. — The peach twig-borer 
(Anarsia lineatella) : adult moth 
with wings spread and folded — 
much enlarged. (After Marlatt, U. 
S. Dept. Agr.) 



the stone is hard when the fruit is attacked. In California, 
according to Clarke, the larva usually enters the fruit along the 
suture at the stem end, and excavates a chamber beneath the 
sldn, which blackens and shrivels somewhat, affording entrance 
to organisms of decay. In the ripe fruit the larvse fre- 
quently make their way to and around the stone, which, 
if split, may be entered and the seed fed upon. . . , Early 
in the fall, about September 1, in California, the veiy young 
larvse from eggs of the last generation of moths construct 
their hibernation cells in the soft tissue of the crotches of 



652 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 




limby, where they reiiiain until the following spring, thus 

spending some six months in 
this condition." — Quaintance. 
Control. — By spraying dur- 
ing the winter, or preferably 
after the buds have swollen 
in the spring with kerosene 
or distillate-oil emulsion, the 
oil is absorbed by the cast- 
ings at the mouth of the 

burrows of the hibc^rnating 
Fig. 503. — Peach twig-borer in winter 

quarters: a, twig, showing in crotch hirva^, and thus penetrates 

minute masses of chewed bark above i\iq burrows and kills the 

hirval chamber; b, same, much en- . , . ,» , 

larged; c, larval cell enlarged; and ^^^^- Lmie-sulfur wash, ap- 

(/, larva very greatly enlarged. (After plied from the time the buds 

Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.) commence to swell until the 

first blossoms, has also been widely and successfully used. 
The wash should be ap- 
plied as late as possible 
before blossoming. Recently 
Mr. E. P. Taylor has shown * 
that in western Colorado 
the larvx' are very readily 
killed by arsenate of lead, 
3 to 5 pounds per barrel, 
applied just as the buds 
are beginning to open. The 
arsenate of lead must con- 
tain no soluble arsenic, or 
it may burn the foliage. 
This treatment is given at 
the same season as the 
lime-sulfur wash and is 
much easier to prepare and apply. 




Fig. 504. — The peach twig-borer: o, 
new shoot of peach withering from 
attacks of larva^; b, larva enlarged; 
c, pupa, enlarged. (After Marlatt, 
U. S. Dept. Agi-.) 



* K. P. Taylor, liullcliu 1 1'.», Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 8. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 653 



The Peach-tree Bark-beetle * 

The peach-tree bark-beetle is very similar in both appearance 
and habits to the fruit-tree bark-beetle (consult p. 545), and may 
be readily confused with it. It is a native insect which attacks 
only peach, cherry and wild cherry, and so far has been injurious 
only in western New York, northern Ohio, and the Niagara dis- 
trict of Ontario, though it occurs from New Hampshire to North 
Carolina and west to Michigan. 

" When the beetles are present in large numbers their injuiy 
to the tree is quickly brought to the attention of the orcharclist 
by the large amount of sap exuding from the trees through the 
many small borings made both in the trunk and limbs of the 
tree. . . . The adults or beetles produce the primary injur}- to healthy 
trees, the work of the larvae being secondary. The healthy trees, 
by repeated attacks of the adults, are reduced to a condition 
favorable to the formation of egg-burrows. When the beetles 
are ready to hibernate in the fall they fly to the healthy trees and 
form their hibernation cells. These latter are injurious to the 
trees, for through each cell there will be a tiny flow of sap during 
the following season." When the beetles emei'ge in the spring 
they bore into the bark of healthy trees and later leave them to 
form egg l)urrows in sickly trees. From these numerous burrows 
the sap issues in large ciuantities and in many cases forms large 
giunmy masses around the trees. After three or four years of 
such injury the tree is so weakened that the l^eetles form their 
egg borrows beneath the bark and the larva; soon finish its 
destruction. There ai-e two generations a year, the summer brood 
appearing in the last half of August and the other hibernating 
over winter. 

Control. — The same methods are advised as for the fruit-tree 
bark-beetle, which see (p. 546). 

* PhlcBotribus liminaris Harris. Family Scolytidof. See H. F. Wilson, 
Bulletin 68, Part IX, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr. 



654 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Peach Lecanium * 

The presence of the " terrapin scale," as this species is often 
called, is usually indicated by the sooty appearance of the branches 
and foliage of affected trees. This is due to the fact that the 
scales excrete considerable honey-dew, which covers the bark and 
leaves, and on which a sooty fungus propagates. It is a common 
species throughout the eastern United States and also attacks 
the apple, maple, sycamore, linden and birch, but is most injurious 
to peach and plum. The hibernating, partly grown, female scale 




Fig. 505. — The peach lecanium or terrapin scale {Eulecanium nigrojasciatum 
Pergande): aduUs at left, natural size and much enlarged; young at 
right, and \mfertiUzed female at center — much enlarged. (After Howard, 
U. S. Dopt. Agr.) 

found on the l)ark in winter, is about one-twelfth inch long, 
hemispherical, and of a i-eddish color mottled with radiating 
streaks of l)lack, particularly aboiil the margin. Sometimes 
these streaks coalesce and form a dark band around the center, 
while othei- individuals are occasionally entirely red or black. 
Frequeully ti'ces become badly encrusted with these scales, but 
rarely are they kill(Ml by lliein. Tlie fruit on badly infested 

* Eulccnnium nigrojasciatum Pergande. Family Coccidce. See J. («. 
Sanders, Circular 88, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. Agr.; A. L. Quain- 
tance. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 100.'), j). 840; T. R. Symons and E. N. Cory, 
Bulletin 140. Md. Aerr. E\p. St:i. 



'INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 655 

trees is, however, poorly developed, insipid, and covered with 
• the sooty fungus so as to be almost unsaleable, and the trees are 
stunted and rendered more liable to the attack of other insects. 

Life History.— There is but one generation a year. In the 
winter they are mostly nearly grown female scales. These mature 
early in the spring and deposit their eggs in a mass beneath the 
body, which forms the hard scale above them. In Missouri the 
eggs hatch al)out June 10th, and continue to hatch for a month. 
The male scales are much smaller than the females, elongate^ 
slightly convex, and greenish-white in color. Late in July the 
winged males appear and live about a week. The young female 
scales continue growth during the summer and hibernate when 
about two-thirds grown. 

Control. — Lime-sulfur wash is entirely ineffective against this 
species. Kerosene emulsion of 20 or 25 per cent, applied during 
the dormant season will destroy the hibernating females, according 
to Sanders. Spraying with kerosene emulsion 15 per cent, or 
whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 4 or 5 gallons of water, just as the eggs 
are hatching, is possibly the best treatment. As the eggs hatch 
for the period of a month, a second application may prove 
advisable. 

The Black Peach-aphis * 

The Ijlack peach-aphis is a native species which has been most 
injurious in the Middle Atlantic States, but has become widely 
distributed on nursery trees. It attacks the roots, tender shoots 
and foliage of the peach. When occurring on the roots, trees are 
often seriously injured Ix^fore its presence is suspected. Young- 
trees are particularly affected, the injured trees having a yellowish 
sickly foliage. Usually, however, the presence of the aphides 
on the young shoots and leaves will be an indication of its inhab- 
iting the roots also. In the spring and early summer the aphides 
cluster on the tender shoots at the crotch of the tree and low 

* Aphis pemicce-niger Er. Sm. Family Aphididce. See C. P. Gillette, 
Bulletin 133, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 37; A. L. Quaintance, Journal of Eco- 
nomic Entomology, Vol. I, p. 308, Yearbook U. S. Dopt. Agr., 190.5, p. 342. 



656 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

clown on the limbs and soon form a disgusting black mass over 
the 3^oimg leaves, which are tightly curled up from the injur)'. 
On young trees in the nurser}' and on }oung orchard trees, this 
injury to the foliage is sometimes so severe as to kill or severely 
check the g'rowth. 

Both winged and wingless aphides are found on the foliage, 
but only the wingless forms occur on the roots. Both forms are 
about one-twelfth inch long and shining deep brown or black 
in color when mature. The partly grown aphides, which form 
the larger part of most colonies, are reddish-yellow or amber 
colored. 




Fig. 506. — The black peach-aphis [Aphis persicce-niger Er. Sm.): winged 
viviparous female; young female, first instar; apterous 'V"iparous 
female — much enlarged. (After Gillette and Taylor.) 

Life Hislonj. — The wingless aphides feed and reproduce upon 
the roots throughout the year, all being females and giving birth 
to liv(> young after the manner of the aphides. In the spring 
some of them migi'ate to the young foliage, often appearing on the 
tender twigs b(>fore the buds open. They multiply rapidly, and 
as a result of the hundreds of little beaks sucking out the juices 
the shoot soon withers, which causes the young to develop into 
winged aphides which migrate to other trees. Honey-dew is 
excreted very freely by the aphides, which are therefore attended 
by numerous ants which doubtless aid in their transportation 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 657 

from tree to tree and from the roots to the leaves and back. 
" During summer the aphides for the most part are to be found 
on the roots, though a few may be found on the foliage and the 
shoots in badly infested orchards at almost any time during the 
growing season. Below ground they occur promiscuously on 
roots of all sizes, but the smaller and more tender ones are pre- 
ferred. Some of the aphides may retain their hold on the roots 
after the trees are dug, and the insect is thus frequently distributed 
on nursery stock. . . . Light sandy soils are worst infested, 
though they have been found in abundance on stiff clay soils." 
(Quaintance, I.e.). Neither the true sexual forms nor the 
eggs of this species have ever been obsei-ved, and there is 
room for a much better knowledge of its life history. It is 
stated by some writers that the aphides migrate to the roots 
in the fall. 

Control. — The I'oots of young trees suspected of being affected 
should be carefully examined and if aphides are found they should 
be dipped in strong tobacco water. Xurserymcn prevent injury 
l)y making liberal applications of tol^acco dust in the trench and 
along the rows. Tolaacco dust ma}" also be used against the 
aphides on the roots of orchard trees by removing the surface 
soil and applying a liberal dressing of the dust, which will be 
leached down on to the roots by the rains. It should be applied 
over the smaller roots. The treatment for the root forms has 
not been sufficiently studied to warrant any conclusions as to 
satisfactory methods, but the same as advised for the woolly apple- 
aphis (p. 587) arc suggested. When the aphides appear on the 
young shoots in the spring they may be readily controlled if the 
trees are observed for their appearance, for they are very gregar- 
ious, clustering on one shoot until it is well covered before spread- 
ing to the rest of a tree, and becoming abundant on it before 
spreading to others. Often the small infested shoots may simph^ 
be broken off and destroyed. The aphides may be killed by 
spraying them with kerosene emulsion, 15 per cent kerosene, 
tobacco extracts or whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 4 gallons. The 
.spray should bo applied with force so as to j:)onetrate the honey- 



658 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

dew and curled loaves, and should be applied earh', as after the 
leaves are much curled it is difficult to reach the aphides. 

The Green Peach-aphis j 

This aphid is a European species which has long been known 
as a pest of peach foliage in this country, where it has become 
widel}" distributed. Considerable interest attaches to the species, 
as it furnishes a striking example of the summer migration of 
aphides to different food-plants, and a consequent difference 
in appearance in form and color. During the summer this species 
feeds upon various vegetables and succulent plants, and is so 
different in color and form that it has been well known not only 
as a separate species, but as belonging to a distinct genus. Con- 
cerning its injury to the peach, E. P. Taylor states: "The 
peach-growers of Western Colorado have suffered loss from it, 
from its heavy infestation of the leaves of the trees in the spring, 
causing them to curl and drop prematurely to the ground, and 
from the withering and subsequent dropping of the buds and 
forming peaches also infested by the aphides at this time." 
Similar injury has been reported from Missouri, and doubtless 
occurs occasionally in other sections. 

Ijife History. — The winter is usually passed in the egg stage 
on the peach, plum, apricot, nectarine, cheriy or other trees, 
though the wingless females sometimes persist on the summer 
food-plants where there is sufficient protection to enable them to 
endure the cold of winter, as in cabbage pits, or in the South. 
The small, oval, shining black eggs are deposited in the axils of 
the buds or in crevices of the bark. " The eggs hatch very 
early in the spring so that the }-oung st(^m-mothers from them 
are often almost fully grown Ix'foro the earliest peach or plum 
l)lossoms open. About the time the buds begin to open on these 
trees, the stem-mothers are all of a deep pink color and begin to 

* Myzua persicoe Sulz. Family Aphididae. {^yn. ^Rhopalosip}ium diantid 
Schr.) See Gillette and Taylor, Bulletin 133, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 32; 
C. P. Gillette, Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. I, p. 359; E. P. Taylor, 
ibid., p. .S3: V. H. ("hittcnden. Bulletin 2. Va. Truck Exp. Sta., p. 30. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 



659 



give birth to living young. These young instead of being pink 
hke their mothers are pale yellowish-green throughout their 
lives, and usuall}' there is a median and two lateral dark green 
stripes passing over the abdomen. Very few of this brood attain 




Fig. 507. — The green peach Aphis {Myzus persicce Sulz.): 5, adult stem 
mother; 6, young of stem mother; 7, apterous viviparous female of 
second generation; 8, spring migi-ant; 9, fall migrant; 10, egg-laying 
female; 11, eggs — all much enlarged. (After Gillette and Taylor.) 



wings. The third generation become very largely Avinged and 
begin leaving the trees upon which they were born about the mid- 
dle of May in the peach-growing sections of the State (Colorado). 
By the middle of June these lice have almost completely left the 



660 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

trees and may be found establishing their colonies upon various 
succulent vegetables," such as caV)bage, turnip, rape, tomato, 
celery, and a long list of vegetables and flowers grown in green- 
houses, where this species is a pest the year round. The list of food- 
plants is a long one, the largest of any species known to him, accord- 
ing to Professor C. P. Gillette, but it is a common and sometimes 
troublesome pest of cabbage (See p. 374) and celery and one of 
the most abundant of the various sorts of " green fly " of the 
greenhouse. The winged females which migrate from the peach 
are about one-twelfth inch long, with a wing expanse of one-third 
inch. They are a yellowish-green color with head, antennae, 
thoracic lobes, honej^-tubes, a large spot on the centre of the 
abdomen, and small lateral spots in front of the honey-tubes are 
blackish. The honey-tubes, or cornicles, are cylindrical, while 
those of the winged females in summer and fall are decidedly 
swollen toward the tip and constricted at the base, giving them 
a club shape, on account of which they were placed in the genus 
Rhopalosiphu7n. Otherwise the winged females of summer and 
fall are very similar, except that they are more yellowish and the 
markings and cornicles are lighter. The wingless females during 
the summer are pale yellowish and lack the longitudinal green 
stripes on the abdomen. According to Taylor's observations the 
spring generations on peach become fidl grown in about two 
weeks and an individual aphid lives about a month. As repro- 
duction is pro))abh^ more rapid in summer, the aphides may soon 
become very al)undant. In the fall winged females return to the 
peach and winter host-plants, and give birth to young which 
develop into wingless females which lay the winter eggs. The 
true males are winged and migrate from the summer food-plants. 
Control. — The trees affected should be sprayed about a week 
before the buds open with o to 7 per cent kerosene emulsion, 
tobacco extract, or whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 5 gallons, or miscible 
oil diluted 20 times. If the trees are sprayed with lime-sulfur 
for the twug-borer just before blossoming, it should kill most of 
the aphides. The same remedies may be used on the foliage of 
affected plants as necessary. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 



661 



The Plum Gouger * 

This is a native species which breeds uj)on wild plums and is 
most injurious to native varieties. It is common throughout 
the Mississippi Valle}', but seems to be most injurious westward 
and occurs in Colorado. The work of the beetles might be easily 
mistaken for that of the curculio (p. oTG). The adult beetle is 
readily distinguished from the 
curculio, however, by lacking 
the humps on the wing-covers. 
It is about one-quarter inch 
long, with a snout half as long, 
the wing-covers are a leaden- 
gray color, finely spotted with 
black and brown, while the 
thorax and head are marked 
with ochreous yellow. 

Life Histori/. Like the cur- 
culio the beetles hibernate over 
winter and appear in the spring 
as the trees blossom. At first 
they puncture the calyx and feed 
on the ovary of the flower, com- 
pletely destroying it for fruit pro- 
duction, and then puncture the 
growing plums, both for food 
and for egg-laying. In feeding 

on the plums the adults gouge out small round holes, from which 
gum exudes. Like the curculios, they have the habit of feigning 
death and dropping to the ground when disturbed. The eggs 
are laid while the pit of the plum is still soft. The female beetle 
drills a small hole in the plum, which is larger below-, and in it 
deposits a small yellowish-white egg, whose outer end lies flush 
with the surface of the plum. As soon as the larva hatches it 
eats its way into the pit. feeding upon the meat of the seed until 




Fig. 508. — The plum gouger {Cocco- 
torus scutellaris Lee): a, plum 
stone showing exit hole of larva; 
b, adult ; r, side view of head of 
beetle — enlarged. (After Riley 
and Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



* Coccotonis snitellari.s Lee. Family Cun-ulionidce. 



662 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

full grown. It then eats a hole through the outside of the pit so 
that the adult beetle may escape, and then transforms to a pupa. 
The larva is very similar to that of the e-urculio, l)ut is a milk}' 
white rather than a glossy white and lacks the reddish tinge on 
the lower surface*. Affected plums do not drop as when injured 
by the curculio. The pupal stage is passed in the pit of the plum 
and the adidt beetle emerges through the hole cut for it by the 
larva. The beetles emerge a little before the plums ripen and 
often practically destroy them, as fruit badly punctured becomes 
gnarly antl worthless. The beetles feed on the plums a short time 
and then seek hibernating quarters for the winter. 

Control. — Jarring the trees as for the curculio is the only 
method of control which has been successfulh' used, but where 
the beetles are abundant it would be well to try spraying with 
arsenate of lead as advised for the curculio (p. .^SO). 

Plum Aphides 

Three species of aphides are common on the plum foliage in 
spring and fall, and often do serious damage by curling up the 
foliage in the spring and causing it to drop prematurely, thus 
checking the gi'owth of the tree and preventing proper fruiting. 
The life histories of the three species are very similar in that the 
eggs are laid upon the plum in the fall, upon which two or three 
generations develop in the spring, but in earl}' summer the}' 
migrate to other food-plants, from which they return to the plum 
in the fall. The life history is much the same as that of the 
apple-aphis (p. 658), and green peach-aphis (p. 597), and need not 
\)v rehearsed in detail. 

The Mealy Plum-louse * 

This is a light-green sjx'cies which is covered by a l)luish-white 

mealy powder. It has a long narrow body, one-tenth inch long, 

* Hyalopleni.s amndinin Fab. Family Aphididce. W. D. Hunter in 
Bulletin 60, Iowa Agr. Exp. 8ta., p. 92, states that Aphis prunifolice Fitch 
is probably the .same species. Certainly H. arundini^ and pruni, Aphis 
pruni and prunifolice, seem to have been applied to the same species in the 
economic literature in America. See Lowe, V. L., Bulletin 139, N. Y. Agr. 
Exp. Sta., p. 657. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 



663 



marked with tliree lon<;ituclinal stiipcs of a darker green. Tlie 
honey-tubes are short, thick, and slightly constricted at the base. 




Fig. 509. — The mealy plum louse (Hyalopterus arundims Fab.): a, young 
nymph; b, last stage of nymph of winged form; c, winged viviparous 
female — all much enlarged. (After Lowe.) 

The winged female is similar in coloration except that the abdomen 
bears several transverse tiiangidai' mai'ks of darker green. In 




Fig. 510. — Mealy plum aphides clustered on leaf. (After Lowe.) 

June the winged females migrate to certain grasses upon which 
the aphides reproduce during the summer, though small colonies 
are to be found on the plum throughout the summer. In the 



604 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

fall they retui'ii to the plum, where tlie winter eggs are laid. This 
species is known to occur in Germany. England, Australia, and 
Xew Zealand, and seems to be widely distributed over the United 
States. It occurs here on plum and prune and in Europe is said 
to infest grape, peach, apricot, and nectarine, according to Lowe. 

The Hop Plant-louse * 

This species is best known as a pest of hops (see p. 275) during 
the summer and rarely does very serious damage to the plum, 
though often quite abundant on it. The wingless aphides are 
light green or yellowish green without any noticeable markings. 
The winged forms have the same body color, with the head, thoracic 
lobes, and a few dashes on the abdomen black. The species 
may be readily distinguished bj' the prominent tubercle which 
projects from the head on the inside of the base of each antenna, 
and a less prominent tubercle on the basal segment of each 
antenna, as shown in Fig. 204. According to the studies of Dr. 
C. \. Riley and his assistants, the third generation in the spring 
migrates from the plum to hops in late spring and in fall winged 
viviparous females give birth to a few young which develop into 
egg-laying females which mate with winged males which have devel- 
oped on hops, the winter eggs being laid on the plum and other 
species of Prunus. In California Clarke has been unable to find 
any evidence of the species on plum or other vegetation outside 
of the hop yards, where he finds the true sexes occurring in the 
fall, but no evidence of eggs. Hops are often seriously damaged 
l)y being reduced in size and weight and from the loss in aroma 
due to the presence of the aphides in them. The species is of 
European origin, where it is a well-known enemy of hops, and has 
become widely distributed in the United States and Canada. 

Control. — Where it oviposits on plum it may be best con- 
trolled by spraying as for the other plum aphides in the spring. 
After it becomes established on hops it may be controlled b}' 

* Phorodon humuli Schrank. Family Aphididce. See page 275 above. 
See C. V. Riley, Report U. S. Dept. Agr., 1888, p. 93; W. T. Clarke, Bulletin 
160, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 665 

spraying with whale-oil soap, 1 pound to 6 gallons of water, or 
by the addition of quassia chips, which has long been the favorite 
remedy of hop-growers, 6 to 8 pounds of quassia chips are 
steeped in cold water for a day or two and then boiled for an 
hour, when they are mixed with 4 or 5 pounds of soft soap, whale- 
oil soap being excellent, and 100 gallons of water. 

The Rusty-brown Plum-louse * 

This species is readily distinguished from others common on 
plum and prune by the dark rusty-brown color, with the base 
of the antennaj, tibia?, and tail a contrasting white. This species 
has become a very serious pest to plum foliage in the South and 
Southwest, and we have observed serious injury in New Hamp- 
shire, so that it is evidently widely distributed. The aphides 
collect on the tender young twigs, which they stunt or kill, assemble 
on the under sides of the leaves, which become corrugated and 
curled from their attack, and when abundant they attack the 
blossoms and their stems and thus prevent the setting of fruit. 
In early summer the winged females migrate to various common 
grasses, such as fox-tail, red top, barnyard grass, crab grass, and 
others, upon which they breed during the summer, and from which 
the winged forms return to plum in the fall. They become 
darker in color late in the season and the wingless, egg-laying 
female is almost black, as is also the small winged male. 

Control. — The treatment advised for the apple-aphis (p. 658) 
will be effective for the three species above while on the plum, 
and for that and other species, the spraying should be done 
early in the season before the aphides have become numerous 
and curled the foliage. 

* Aphis seUiricB Thos. Family AphididxB. See CJillette and Taylor, 
Bulletin 133, Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 41; C. E. Sanborn, Bulletin 88, Okla- 
homa Agr. Exp. Sta. 



660 INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 

The Black Cherry-louse * 

This species has long been known as a cherry pest in Europe 
and during the last fifty years has become generally distributed 
over the eastern United States, and occurs in Colorado. So far 
as known the cherry is the only food-plant. Dr. Weed was of 
the opinion that the aphides left the cherry during late July 
and migrated to some summer food-plant which he was unable to 




Fig. 511. — The black cherry-aphis (Myzus cerasi Fab.): 1, apterous vivip- 
arous female; 2, winged viviparous female — enlarged. (After Gillette 
and Taylor.) 

find, but observations by Gillette and Taylor in Colorado would 
indicate that they may remain on the cherry, but become so 
reduced in numbers by their natural enemies that only a few 
survive during midsummer, and these give rise to larger colonies 
in late summei- and early fall. Both the winged and wingless 
forms are deep shining black, the body is rather broad and flat, 
and the honey-tubes are unusually long and are cjdindrical. 
Small winged males and wingless females occur on the foliage in 
the fall and the latter lay their eggs on the twigs about the buds. 
Like the black peach-aphis, this species has the habit of accumula- 
ting in large numbers on the smaller sprouts or limbs near the 

* Myzus cerasi Fab. Family Aphididce. See (". M. Weed, Bulletin Ohio 
Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Ser., Vol. I. No. 2. p. Ill; ('. P. Gillette, Journal of 
Economic Entomology, \'ol. I. p. 862. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 



667 



grountl before spreading to the rest of the tree or other trees, so 
that prompt treatment when first observed will prevent general 
infestation. 

Control. — Spraying with kei'osene emulsion, whale-oil soap, 
tobaceo extracts, or dilute miscible oils, as for the apj^le-aphis 
(p. 658), will control the pest. 

The Cherry Fruit-fly f 

The cherry fruit-fly is a native insect whose maggot lives in 
the flesh of the cherries, causing them to rot. It is very nearly 
related to the ap})le maggot (p. 632) which it very closely resembles 




Fig. 512. — The cherry fruit-fly (Rhagoletis cingulata Loew.): a, fly; b, maggot; 
c, anterior spiracles of same; d, puparium; e, posterior spiracular plates 
of pupa — all enlarged. (After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.) 

in both appearance and life history. Injury by it has been 
recorded in Massachusetts, New York, Ontario, Pennsylvania, 
District of Columbia, Michigan and Iowa, so that it is probably 
generally distributed over the northeastern States. Although 
its native food-plant is unknown it is probable that it lives on some 
wild sour cherry. As cherries are always more or less injured 

t Rhagoletis cingulata Loew. Family TrypetidoE. See M. V. Slingerland 
Bulletin 172, Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta.; F. H. Chittenden, Bulletin 44' 
Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. .\gr., p. 70. 



668 



INSECT PESTS OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD 



by the plum curculio (p. 57b), it is quite probable that injury 
by this maggot may have been attributed to the curculio and its 
identity passed unnoticed. Sour and subacid varieties, such as the 
Morcllo and Montmorency, are worst injured, but black cherries 
and indeed all varieties are more or less damaged. 

The fly is slightly smaller than that of the apple-maggot, being 
about one-sixth inch long with a wing expanse of three-eighths 
inch. The body is blackish, the head and legs are pale yellowish- 
brown, the sides of the thorax are marked with a longitudinal 




Fig. 513. — Section of a cherry, enlarged to show the maggot of the cherry 
fruit-fly and nature of its work. The small figures above show the 
maggot and parent fly natural size. (After Shngerland.) 

yellow band, the abdominal segments are marked with whitish 
or pale brownish transverse bands, and the wings are crossed by 
four blackish bands. The maggot is about one-quarter inch 
long and is indistinguishable from the apple-maggot. 

Life History. — The eggs are deposited just under the skin 
of the cherry from June until August, or probably during the 
whole season of the fruit. The eggs hatch in a few days and the 
little maggots penetrate to the pits, feeding on the flesh and 
forming a rotting cavity very similar to that made by the grub of 
the ciu'culio. But few of the affected chei'i-ies fall from the trees. 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STONE FRUITS 069 

and as thc\- frcKiuciitly show hut little cffot't of the damage, the 
infested fruit may be marketed and the pest thus spread. When 
full grown the maggots leave the cherries and form puparia just 
beneath the surface of the ground, or in the bottom of baskets 
or in rubbish, wherever the affected fruit may be. The flies 
commence to emerge from these puparia by the middle of June 
in New York and are found during the summer months. 

Control. — There is but little evidence as to practical means of 
control. Deep plowing in spring should result in burying the 
puparia so deeply as to prevent the emergence of the flies. Cultiva- 
tion is evidently of little value, as the pest occurs in well-cultivated 
orchards, so that shallow cultivation does not seem to affect the 
puparia. Chickens have been observed to destroy the puparia, 
and will doubtless prove as effective as against the apple-maggot 
where they can be confined beneath affected trees on cultivated 
soil. The destruction of all fruit, whether windfall or remaining 
on the tree will, of course, aid in control. Recently a nearly 
related fruit-fly has been successfully controlled in South Africa 
by spraying the foliage with arsenate of lead sweetened with 
treacle or brown sugar, thus attracting the flies, which are poisoned 
by the arsenate, and this method is worthy of trial both for the 
cherry fruit-fly and apple-maggot. 



INDEX 



Abbot's sphinx, 530 
Acarina, 636 

Achemon sphinx, 526, 527 
Acridida;, 93 
Adalia bipiincta(a, 10 
Adoxus vitis, 504 
JEger'm tipuliformis, 477 
Agrilus ruficollis, 466 
Agriotes mancus, 82, 83 
Agroinyza simplex, 428 
Agromyzida?, 428 
Agrotis annexa, 88 

messoria, 85 

ypsilon, 85 
Air-tubes, 29 
Alabama argillacea, 243 
Alfalfa weevil, 205 
Alimentary canal, 30 
Alkali bug, 337 
Alsophila pometaria, 572, 573 
Alwood, W. B., 584 
American frit-fly, 134, 135 
Amphicerus bicaudatus, 513 

punctipennis, 515 
Ampeloglypter ater, 511 

sesostris, 509 
Ampelophaga myron, 528 
Anarsia lineatella, 650 
Anasa tristis, 388 
Anatomy, internal, 30 
Ancylis comptana, 452 
Angumois grain-moth, 192 
Ant, corn-field, 165, 168 
Antennae, 22 

Anthomyia egg parasite, 106 
Anthomyiidse, 320, 345, 347, 420, 
423, 469 



Anthononius grandis, 261 

quadrigibbus, 634 
signatus, 456 
Ants and plant-lice, 165, 444 
Apanteles congregatus, 234 
Aphides, plum, 662 
Aphidida;, 147, 150, 164, 211, 241, 
275, 317, 330, 383, 441, 484, 492, 
582, 597, 602, 604, 606, 655, 658, 
662, 664, 665, 666 
Aphidius avenaphis, 19, 149 

spp., 325 
Aphis, apple, 597 

bakeri, 606, 607 

bean, 317 

brassica?, 371 

burr-clover, 241 

cabbage, 371 

clover, 606 

corn root-, 164 

currant, 474 

English grain, 147 

fitchii, 604 

forbesi, 441 

German grain, 148 

gossypii, 241, 383 

grass root-, 167 

hop, 275 

maidi-radicis, 164 

maidis, 170 

medicaginis, 241 

melon, 241, 383 

pea, 322 

persicse-niger, 655 

pomi, 597, 607 

prunifolise, 662 

pyri, 602 

671 



672 



INDEX 



Aphis, rumicis, 317 
setarifp, 665 
sorbi, 602 
spinage or green-peach, 375, 

658 
spring grain, 150 
Apparatus, dusting, 77 

spraying, 60 
Apple aphis, 579 

woolly, 582 
rosy, 602 
curculio, 634 
insects, 582 
leaf-miner, 616 
maggot, 632 
plant-lice, 597 
tree-borer, flat-headed, 591 

round-headed, 588 
worm, 624 

lesser, 628 
Arachnida, 636 
Arctiida?, 247, 553 
Argus tortoise-beetle, 436 
Army worm, 3, 114 

beet, 334 
faU, 118 
Arsenate of lead, 43 
Arsenicals, harmlessness of, 47 
Arsenite of lead, 44 
Arsenite of lime, 45 
Asaphes decoloratus, 83 
Asparagus beetle, 424 

twelve-sjiotted, 427 
miner, 428 
Aspidiotus perniciosus, 538 
Atomizers, 60 
Aulacizes irrorata, 250 
Autographa brassicie, 3()1 

Ball, E. D., 339 
Baltimore oriole, 307 
Banded flea-beetle, 402 
Bark-beetle, fruit-tree, 544, 653 

peach-tree, 653 
Barred-winged onion maggot, 423 
Bean-aphis, 317 
Bean insects, 305 



Bean ladybird, 315 

leaf-beetle, 313 

-weevil, 309 

European, 313 
four-spotted, 312 
Bee-flies, 106 
Beet-aphis, 330 

army worm, 334 

leaf-beetle, larger, 337 

leaf-hoj)per, 339 

leaf-miner, 345 

root-aphis, 331 
Bembecia marginata, 459 
Bill-bugs, 175 

maize, 178 
Bishopp, F. C, 254 
Blackberry gallmaker, 468 
Blackbird, crow, 307 
Black cherry-louse, 666 
Black-legged tortoise-beetle, 434 
Black peach-aphis, 655 
Black swallow-tail butterfly, 411 
Blissus leucopterus, 89 
Blister-beetle, ash-gray, 316 
Nutt all's, 317 
striped, 343 
Blister-beetles, 107, 301, 315, 343 
Blister-mite, pear-leaf, 636. 
Blood, of insects, 30 
Boll weevil, cotton, 261 
Bollworm, cotton, 181, 254 
Bordeaux mixture, 56 
Borer, cotton-square, 248 
hop-plant, 273 
peach, 645 
Brachymena 4-pust ulata, 25 
Braconidffi, 18, 149, 374, 385, 557 
Bracon mellitor, 270 
Bran-mash, poisoned, 47 
Breathing, of insects, 28 
Brit ton, W. E., 570, 572, 573, 602, 

621, 623 
Brooks, F. E., 497, 509, 511, 534, 537, 

634 
Brown-tail moth, 5, 558 
Bruchida;, 305, 309 
Bruchophagus funebris, 214 



INDEX 



673 



Bruchus chinensis, 311 

obtectus, 309 

pisorum, 305 

quadrimaculatus, 312 

rufimanus, 313 
Brues, C. T., 241, 254 
Bruner, L., 449 
Bryobia pratensis, 209 
Buhach, 55 
Bud-moth, 621 
Bud-worm, 159, 161, 172, 234 

tobacco, 181 
Buffalo tree-hopper, 547 
Buprestida^, 466, 591 
Burr-clover aphis, 241 
Burning, for insects, 38 
Byturus (micolor, 474 

Cabbage-aphis, 371 

-bug, harlequin, 368 
butterfly, southern, 360 
curculio, 377 
flea-beetle, western, 375 
insects, 37 
looper, 361 
maggot, 34, 347 
plutella, 366 

webworm, imported, 365 
-worm, cross-striped, 363 
-worm, imi)orted, 355 
Cadelle, 188 
Calandra granaria, 186 

oryza>, 186 
Calandrida;, 175, 186 
Calosoma calidum, 15 

scrutator, 16 
Calico-ba(!k, 368 
California peach-tree borer, 645 
Calocoris rapidus, 251 
Camnula pellucida, 99 
Cane-borer, grape, 513 

raspberry, 462 
red-necked, 466 
Canker-worm, fall, 572 

spring, 570 
Cantharis nuttalli, 317 
Capsidae, 226, 251, 404, 481 



Carabid«, 14 

Carbon bisulfid, 57 

Carrot beetle, 414 
rust-fly, 415 

C'ase-bearer, cigar, 618 
pistol, 618 

Cassida bivittata, 433 
nigripes, 434 

Cassidae, 432 

Caterpillar, apple, red-humped, 615 
yellow-necked, 613 
celery, 411 
clover-seed, 216 
hog, grape-vine, 528 
salt-marsh, 247 
tent, 608 

white-lined sphinx, 247 
woolly-bear, 247 

Cathartus advena, 188 

gemellatus, 188 

Cattle, tick, 6 

Cecidomyida", 123, 145, 212 

Celery caterjiillar, 411 
leaf-tyer, 409 
looper, 413 

Cephidaj, 129 

Cephus occidentalis, 130 
pygma;us, 129 

Cerambycida?, 462, 588 

Cereals, insect injury to, 2 

Ceratoma trifurcata, 313 

Ceresa bubalus, 547 

Ceutorhinchus rapa», 377 

Chalcid, clover-seed, 214 

Chalcidida;, 136, 138, 214 

Chalcis flies, 19, 545 

Chtetocnema confinis, 430 

Chatopsis a^nea, 423 

Chelymorpha argus, 436 

Cherry fruit-fly, 667 

Chinch-bug, 2, 37, 89 
false, 339 

Chionaspis furfura, 595, 596 

Chiropachis colon, 545 

Chitin, 23 

Chittenden, F. H., 129, 178, 186, 197 
258, 261, 291, 305, 307, 320, 322, 



674 



INDEX 



Chittenden, F. H. — Continued 

330, 335, 338, 345, 347, 355, 361, 
363, 365, 368, 378, 379, 383, 388, 
391, 402, 408, 413, 415, 418, 424, 
428, 456, 478, 544, 588, 658, 667 
Chloridea virescens, 234 
Chrysalis, 24 

Chrysobothris femorata, 591 
Chrysomelida^ 157, 158, 222, 291, 
303, 313, 335, 337, 375, 379, 402, 
424, 427, 430, 448, 501, 515 
Chrysopidse, 325, 385 
Cicada, mouth-parts, 28 
periodical, 548 
septendecim, 548 
Cicadids, 548 
Cigar case-bearer, 618 
Cigarette beetle, 239 
Clarke, W. T., 289, 650, 664 
Clover-aphis, 606 

-hay worm, 219 
insects, 200 
leaf-weevil, 20;{ 
mite, 209 
root-borer, 200 
-seed chalcid, 214 
midge, 212 
caterpillar, 216 
stem-borer, 202 
Coccida;, 538, 592, 595, 654 
Coccinella novemnotata, 9, 385 
Coccinellida>, 9, 315, 325, 385, 391 
Cocoon, 24 

Coccotorus scutellaris, 661 
Codling moth, 4, 624 
Ca?linus mcromyza', 135 
Colaspis brunnea, 448 
('oleoj)hora fletcherella, 618 
malivorella, 618 
Colorado potato-beetle, 291 
Comma butterfly, 283 
Comj)ressed-air sprayers, 62 
Comstock, J. n., 129, 438, 462, 464, 

539 
Conotrachelus nenuphar, 576 
Conradi, A. F., 165, 388, 440 
Cook, A. J., 133 



Cooley, R. A., 596 
Coptocycla bicolor, 435 

signifera, 436 
Coquillet, D. W., 113, 570, 572 
Coreida>, 252, 388 
Corn ear-worm, 2, 181, 235 
-field, ant, 168 
insect injury to, 2 
insects, 157 
leaf-aphis, 170 
-root aphis, 164, 170 
webworm, 161 
root-worm, southern, 158 

western, 157 
stalk-borer, 37 

larger, 172, 181 
Cory, E. N., 654 
Cotton-boll cutworm, 258 

boll weevil, 3, 34, 37, 261 
bollworm, 3, 40, 181, 254 
insect injurj' to, 3 
insects, 241 
leaf-bug, 251 
-hoppers, 250 
-worm, 4, 243 
square-borer, 248 
stainer, 253 
worm, 243 
Cowpea weevil, 311 
Crambidse, 161, 172, 224 
Crambus caliginosellus, 161, 224 
Crandall, C. S., 57(), 634 
Crane-flies, 121 
Craponius inicqualis, 534 
Crested flycatcher, 501 
Criddle mixture, 113 
Crioceris asparagi, 424 

duodecimjjunctata, 427 
Cross-striped cabbage-worm, 363 
Crown-borer, strawberry, 447 
CucujidtE, 187 

Cucumber beetle, strii)ed, 159, 379 
Culture, 35 
Curculio, ai)i)le, 634 

cabbage, 377 
grape, 534 
plum, 576 



INDEX 



675 



CurciUio, rhubarb, 408 
Curculionidae, 203, 205, 261, 285, 377, 
438, 447, 456, 509, 511, 534, 576, 
634, 661 
Currant-aphis, 484 

borer, imported, 477 
-fly, 490 
span-worm, 488 
stem-girdler, 478 
worm, imported, 486 
native, 487 
Cutworm, bronzed, 86 

cotton-boll, 258 
dark-sided, 85 
dingy, 87 
glassy, 88 
granulated, 88 
greasy, 85 
well-marked, 87 
Cutworms, 84, 332 
Cydia pomonella, 624 
Cylas formicarius, 438 
Cymatomorpha riberia, 488 
Cynipida-, 468 

Dasyneura leguminicola, 212 
Datana ministni, 613 
Davis, G. C, 342 

J. J., 164 
Dean, Geo. A., 199 
Deilephila lineata, 247, 528 
Depressaria heracliana, 417 
Dermestidae, 474 
Desmia funeralis, 523 
Diabrotiea longioornis, 157, 159, 160 

duodecimpunctata, 158 

vittata, 303, 379 
Diamond-back moth, 366 
Diaphania hyalinita, 400 

nitidalis, 397 
Diastrophus nebulosus, 468 
Diatraea zeacolella, 172, 181 
Dicyphus minimus, 226 
Dictyophorus reticulatus, 101 
Diplosis tritici, 145 
Disonycha triangularis, 335 

xanthomelaena, 335 



Doane, W. R., 330 
Dodge, C. R., 373 
Dolerus arvensis, 143 
Drasterius elegans, 82 
Drone-fly, 13 
Dusting apparatus, 77 
arsenicals, 44 
Dyar, H. G., 557 
Dysdercus suturellus, 253 

Ear-worm, corn, 181, 235 

Elachistidff, 618 

Elaterida;, 81 

EHot, Ida M., 525 

Empusa aphidis, 325 

Enarmonia interstinctana, 216 
prunivora, 628 

English grain-louse, 147 

Ephestia kuehniella, 190 

Epicauta pennsylvanica, 344 
vittata, 107, 343 

Epidapus scabies, 300 

Epilachna borealis, 391 

varivestis, 315 

Epitrix pucumeris, 296 
fuscula, 296, 299 
l)arvula, 222, 298, 299 

Epochra canadensis, 490 

Eriocampoides limacina, 642 

P^riophyes pyri, 636 

Eriophyidie, 636 

Eristalis tenax, 13 

Erotylida^, 202 

Estigmene acraea, 247 

Eulecanium nigrofaseiatum, 654 

Euproctis chrysorrhea, 558 

European grain-aphis, 604 

Euschistus punctipes, 225 
variolarius, 225 

Eutettix tenella, 339 

Euthrips nicotaniie, 240 

Evergestis rimosalis, 363 

Exorista flavicauda, 107 
leucaniae, 107 

Extension rods, 74 

Fall armyworm, 118, 247 



676 



INDEX 



Fall cankerwonn, 572 

webworm, 553 
False chinch-bug, 339 
Farm methods for insect control, 32 
Felt, E. P., 501, 588, 608 
Feltia subgothica, 87 
Fernakl, C. H., 563 

H. T., 83 
Fertilization, 35 
Fidia cana, 503 

viticida, 501 
Fire-bug, 368 
Fiske, W. F., 611 
Fitch, Asa, 132, 146, 318, 320 
Flat-headed apple-tree borer, 591 
Flea-beetles, 34, 335, 375 
banded, 402 
(•ucunil)er, 29() 
eggplant, 299 
grapevine, 515 
l)ale-striped, 402 
potato, 296 
southern potato, 296 
spinach, 335 
sweet-potato, 430 
tobacco, 222, 296, 299 
wavy-striped, 375 
western cabbage, 375 
Flesh-fly, 107 

Fletcher, James, 129, 133, 307, 329 
Flour moths, 189 

moth, Mediterranean, 189 
Folsom, J. W., 200, 205, 214, 217, 322 
Forbes, S. A., 79, 123, 157, 164, 169, 
170, 175, 177, 330, 335, 402, 413, 
441, 447, 576 
Forbush, E. H., 563 
Foreign grain-beetle, 188 
Forest insects, 5 
l'\)ster, S. W., 628 
Four-lined leaf-bug, 481 
Fruit -fly, cherry, ()67 
Fruits, insect injury to, 4 
Fruit-tree bark-beetle, 544, 653 
Fruit-worm, tomato, 181 
Fungus, grasshopper, 112 
pea-aphis, 325 



( lull-maker, grape-cane, 509 
blackberry, 468 
Garden webworm, 247, 406 
Garman, H., 135, 225, 296, 301, 347, 

367, 447 
Gases, 42, 57 
Gelechiida;, 192, 650 
Geometridffi, 488, 570, 572 
German grain-aphis, 148 
Gillette, C. P., 47, 315, 338, 383, 582 

597, 602, 606, 655, 658, 660, 666 
Girault, A. A., 645 
Girdler, grape-cane, 511 
Gipsy moth, 5, 563 
Glassy-winged sharpshooter, 249 
Goff, W. H., 352 
CJoldbugs, 432 
Ciolden tortoise-beetle, 435 
Good, James, 47 
Goodwin, W. H., 474 
Gossard, H. A., 137, 218, 530, 546 
Gouger, plum, 661 
Graphops pubescens, 448 
Grain-aphis, European, 604 
German, 148 
-beetles, 187 

foreign, 188 

red, or square-necked, 

188 
saw-toothed, 187 
-moth, Anguniois, 192 
Sphenophorus, 175 
Gi'ains, small, insects of, 121 
stored, insects of, 186 
(irain weevils, 186 
Granary, 196 

weevil, 186 
(irape-berry moth, 530 
cane-borer, 513 

gall-maker, 509 
girdler, 511 
curculio, 534 
l(^af-fokler, 523 

-hopjier, 520 
root-worm, 501 

imported, 504 
-vine flea-beetle, 515 



INDEX 



677 



Grape- vine liog-cuterpillar, 5'2S 
phylloxera, 492 
root-borer, 497 
Grasshoppers, 93. »SVe Locusts. 

southern lubber, 101 
Grass moths, 162 

root-louse, 167 
Gray hair-streak butterfly, 319 
Green-bug, 150 
Greenhouse leaf-tyer, 409 
Green peach-aphis, 375, 658 

soldier-bug, 252 
Ground-beetles, 14, 117 
fiery, 15 
mia-ky, 16, 295 
GryUida', 464 
Gymnonychus appendiculatus, 487 

Hadena devastatrix, 88 

Haltica chalybea, 515 

Hammar, A. G., 501, 618 

Harlequin cabbage-bug, 40, 368 

Harpalus caliginosus, 16, 295 

Harpiphorus maculatus, 450 

Hart, C. A., 330, 413 

Hartzell, F. Z., 492, 501 

Harvey, F. L., 490, 632 

Hawk-moth larvse, 525 

Hay, insect injiu-y to, 3 

Headlee, T. J., 379 

Heart, 30 

Heliothis obsoleta, 24, 181, 234, 254 

Hellebore, 47 

Hellula undahs, 365 

Herrick, G. W., 371 

Hessian fly, 2, 34, 40, 123 

Hinds, W. E., 198, 241, 261, 268 

Hippodamia convergens, 10, 296, 

385 
Hodgkiss, H. E., 547, 636 
Homalodisca triquetra, 249 
Honey-bee, 22 
Hooker, W. A., 240 
Hopkins, A. D., 5, 300, 548 
Hop insects, 274 

louse, 275, 664 

merchants, 280 



Hopperdozers, 109 
Hop-plant borer, 273 

plant-louse, 275, 664 
-vine snout-moth, 279 
Hornblowers, 230 
Hornworms, 228 
Hose, 75 

Houghton, C. O., 464, 616 
Houser, ,J. 8., 136, 530 
Howard, L. O., 112, 175, 222, 234, 

239, 273, 558, 563 
Hubbard, H. G., 246 
Hungate, J. W., 371 
Hunter, S. J., 155 
Hunter, W. D., 3, 94, 198, 241, 261, 

266, 662 
Hyalopterus arundinis, 662 
Hydrocyanic-acid gas, 57 
Hydroecia immanis, 273 
Hylastinus obscurus, 200 
Hypena hunuili, 279 

rostralis, 280 
Hyphantria cunea, 553 
textor, 557 
Hypsopygia costalis, 219 

Ichneumon-flies, 17, 616 
Ichneumonidaj, 17, 616 
Im])orted cabbage webworm, 365 
currant-borer, 477 
worm, 486 
grape root-worm, 504 
onion maggot, 420 
Indian-meal moth, 191 
Injury by insects, 1 
Insecticides, 42 

contact, 42, 48 
I)oisons or arsenicals, 42 
Isosoma grande, 138 
tritici, 136 

Janus integer, 478 
Jarvis, C. D., 616 
Jassida;, 249, 520 
Jenne, E. L., 624 
John.son, Fred, 501, 518 

W. G., 58, 190, 224, 326 



678 



INDEX 



Jones, C. R., 254 
Jones, P. R., 028 

Kedzir foniiula, 44 
Kelly, E. (). G., 178 
Kerosene? , 49 

enmlsion, 48 

Lachnosterna, 79, 41.5 

aicuata, 80 
Ladybird beetle, 9, 543 
bean, 315 

convergent, 10, 290 
nine-spotted, 9 
spotted, 11 
squash, 391 
two-spotted, 10 
Languria mozardi, 202 
Laijhygma exigua, 334 

frugiperda, 118 
Larger cornstalk-borer, 172, 181 
Larva, 23 
Lasiocampidae, 608 
Lasioderma serricorne, 239 
Lasius niger americanus, 165, 108 
Lawrence, W. H., 459, 409 
Leaf-aphis, corn, 170 
Leaf -beetle, bean, 313 

three-lined, 303 
Leaf -bug, cotton, 251 

four-lined, 481 
Leaf-folder, grape, 523 
-hopper, grape, 520 
cotton, 250 
-miner, apple, 016 

tobacco, 237 
-roller, strawb(>rry, 452 
"tyer, celery or greenhouse", 409 
-weevil, clover, 203 
Lcatherjackets, 171 
T^ebia grandis, 10 
Lenia trilineata, 303 
Lepidosaphes ulini, 592 
Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 291 
Leptoglossus oppositus, 252 
I^esser apple-worm, 028 
peach borer, 645 
Leucania unipuncta, 114 



Ligyrus gibbosus, 414 
Lime-sulfur wash, boiled, 50 

home-made con- 
centrated, 51 
self-boiled, 53 
Limneria fugitiva, 616 

fpdemasiae, 616 
Lindeman, 420 
Liparidse, 558, 503 
Live-stock, insect injury to, 
Lixus concavus, 408 
Locust, American acridium, 99 

CaUfornia devastating, 99 

differential, 99, 100 

lesser migratory, 98 

migratory, 93 

pellucid, 99 

red-legged, 98, 99 

Rocky mountain, 93 

seventeen-year, 548 

two-striped, 99 

see also grasshoppers. 
London purple, 43 
Lowe, V. H., 472, 484, 008, 018 
Loxostege similalis, 247, 406 

sticticalis, 332 
Lugger, O., 293, 321, 477, 480, 525 
Lycienida?, 248, 319 
Lydella doryphorae, 294 
Lygaiidae, 89 

Lygus pratensis, 339, 404 
Lygocerus stigmatus, 445 
Lysiphlebus testaceipes, 154, 385, 445 

Macrobasis unicolor, 310, 343 
Macrodactylus subspinosus, 518 
Macrosiphum cerealis, 147 

granaria, 147 

pisi, 211, 322 
Maize bill-bug, 178 
Malacasoma americana, 608 
Mally, F. W., 418, 451 
Mandibles, 27 

Marlatt, C. L., 1, 7, 121, 143, 209, 
486, 492, 513, 538, 540, 547. 582, 
639, 642, 650 
Maxilla?, 27 



INDEX 



679 



Mayetiola destructor, 123 

Meadow-maggots, 121 

Meal snout-moth, 192 

Mealy plum-louse, 662 

Measuring worms, 570 

Mediterranean flour-moth, ISO 

Megilla maculata, 11, 385 

Melanoplus atlantis, 98 

bivittatus, 99 
devastator, 99 
differentialis, 99, 100 
femur-rubrum, 98 
spretus, 93 

Melanotus communis, 83 
cribulosus, 82 

Melittia satyriniformis, 393 

Meloidff, 301, 316, 343 

Melon-aphis, 241, 383 

Melon caterpillar, 400 

MembracidiB, 547 

Memythrus polistiformis, 497 

Meromyza americana, 132 

Metamorphosis, complete, 23 
incomplete, 26 

Meteorus hyphantriae, 556, 557. 

Mexican cotton boll weevil, 261 

Microgaster, 18 

Microweisea misella, 543 

Midge, clover-seed, 212 

Migratory locust, 93 

Miscible oils, 50 

Mite, locust, 105, 106 

Monophadnus rubi, 472 

Monostegia ignota, 451 

Monoxia puncticollis, 337 

Morgan, A. C, 222 

H. A., 101, 112 

Morrill, A. W., 252 

Mottled tortoise-beetle, 43() 

Mouth-parts, biting, 27 

of plant-louse, 29 
sucking, 28 

Murgantia histrionica, 368 

Myiarchus crinitus, 501 

Myzus cerasi, 666 

persicae, 374, 658 
ribis, 484 



Native currant worm, 487 
Nephelodes minians, 86 
Newell, Wilmon, 269, 272 
Nezara hilaris, 252 
Noctua clandestina, 87 
Noctuida;, 84, 114, 118, 181, 234, 
243, 254, 258, 279, 287, 334, 361, 
413, 613, 615 
Nozzles, 72 

Bordeaux, 74 

disk, 73 

Vermorel, 72 
Nymph, 26, 550 
Nymphahd«, 280, 283 
Nysius angustatus, 339 

Oberea bimaculata, 462 
(Ecanthus niveus, 464 
Oil-and-water spray, 49 
O'Kane, W. C, 632 
Oncometopia lateralis, 250 
undata, 250 
Onion-maggot, barred-winged, 423 

imported, 420 

thrips, 418 
Ophion macrurum, 18 
Orchard fruits, insects of, 538 
Osborn, H., 218, 318, 418 
Oscinis variabilis, 134 
Ox-warble, 6 
Oyster-shell scale, 592 

Pachynematus extensicornis, 143 
Pachyrrhinis spp., 121 
Packard, A. S., 613, 615 
Paleacrita vernata, 570 
Pale-striped flea-beetle, 402 
Pandorus sphinx, 527 
Papaipema nitella, 287 
Papilionid*, 411 
Papilio polyxenes, 411 
Parasites, insect, 17 
Paris green, 43 
PaiTott, P. J., 636 
Parsnip webworm, 417 
Pea-aphis, 34, 211, 322 
insects, 305 



680 



INDEX 



IVa-mulli, :WS 

-weevil, 305 
Peach-aphis, black, 655 
green, 65S 
borer, 645 

lesser, ()45 
lecanium, 654 
-tree bark -beetles, 653 

l)()rer, California, M'} 
twig-borer, 650 
Pear insects, 582 

-leaf blister-mite, 636 
psylla, 639 
slug, 642 
Pegomyia brassicse, 347 
ceparum, 420 
fusciceps, 320 
vicina, 345 
Pemphigius \w\ix\ 330 
Pentatoniiche, 225, 252, 36S 
Pergande, Th., 147, 4 IS, 604 
Peridroinia saucia, 85 
Periodical cicada, 548 
Persian insect powder, 55 
Petroleum, crude, 49 
Pettit, R. H., 423 
PhUeotribus liminaris, 653 
Phelegethont ius quinquemaculat a, 
228 
sexta, 228 
PhlyctaMiia rubigalis, 409 
Pholus achemoii, 526 
pandorus, 527 
Phorbia rubivora, 469 
Phoroflon humuli, 275, 664 
l'hthorima> opcMculella, 237, 289 
Phyllotrela pusilla, 375 
sinuata, 375 
Phyllotreta vittata, 335, 375 
Phylloxera vastatrix, 492 
Physapoda, 418 
Phytonomus murinus, 205 

]nmctatus, 203 
Pickle-worm, 397 
Pierce, W. D., 268 
Pieridsp, 355, 360, 361 
Pimpla conquisitor, 243, 246 



Pimpla in(iuisltor, 17 
Piper, C. v., 651 
Pipiza radicans, 14 
Pistol case-bearer, 618 
Plant-bugs, 252 

tarnished, 339 
Planting, time of, 34 
I'lant-lice, 241, see aphides and aphis. 

apple, 597 
Plant-louse, hop, 664 

mouth-parts, 29 
Plodia interpunctella, 190 
Plowing, late fall, 38 
Plum aphides, 662 
curcuho, 576 
gouger, 661 
louse, mealy, 662 

rusty-brown, 665 
Plusia simplex, 413 
Plutella maculipennis, 366 
Podisus spinosus, 293 

spp., 611 
Po'cilocapsus lineatus, 481 
Poisons, 42 

Polychrosis viteana, 530 
Polygonia comma, 281 

interrogationis, 280 
I'oiitia uapi, 361 

protodice, 360 
rapa% 355 
T'openoe, E. A., 311 
C. H., 371 
I'orthetria dispar, 563 
Potato insects, 285 

l)eetle, Colorado, 291 
scab and insects, 300 

-gnat, 300 
stalk-borer, 285 
tul)er-worm, 289 
Potherb butterfly, 361 
ProctotrypidiP, 19 
Prodenia ornithogalli, 258 
Psila rosse, 415 
Psylla, pear, 639 
Psylla pyricola, 639 
Pteronus ribesii, 486 
Ptinidaj, 239, 513 ^ 



INDEX 



681 



ruinp!^, barrel, do 

bucket, ()0 

horizontal, 67 

knapsack, 61 

power outfits. 69 

see also sprayers. 
Pupa, 24 
Puparium, 2,5 
PyralididfB, 190, 191, 192, 219, 2-17, 

363, 365, 409, 523 
Pyralis farinalis, 191 
Pyraustida?, 332, 397, 400, 406 
Pyrethrum, 55 
Pyrrhocorida^, 253 

Quaintance, A. L., 78, 228, 236, 241, 
254, 379, 397, 400, 418, 441, 492, 
501, 523, 570, 576, 578, 592, 595, 
597, 608, 616, 624, 628, 632, 645, 
650, 652, 655 

Quaylc, H. J., 492 

Railroad worm, 632 
Raspberry insects, 459 

Byturus, 474 

cane-borer, 462 
-maggot, 4()9 

root-borer, 459 

saw-fly, 472 
Red-bug, 253 

Red-himiped ap])le-cater]Mllar, 615 
Red-necked cane-borei-, 46() 
Red- or square-necked grain-beetle, 

188 
Reeves, G. I., 139 
Rejiellants, 42, 56 
Resin-soaji sticker, 46 
Respiration of insects, 28 
Rhagoletis cingulata, 667 

pomonella, 632 
Rhopalosiijhinn dianthi, 658 

ribis, 484 
Rhubarb curculio, 408 
Rice-weevil, 186 

Riley, C. V., 94, 143, 277, 285, 
294, 371, 375, 406, 417, 437, 452, 
664 



Roberts, 1. P., 128 
Root -aphis, beet, 331 
Root -borer, clover, 200 

grapevine, 497 

raspberry, 459 

sweet-potato, 438 
Root-louse, strawberry, 441 
Root maggots, 41 
Root-worm, grape, 501 

strawberry, 448 
Rose bugs, 518 
Rose-chafer, 518 
Rosy apple-aphis, 602 
Rotation of crops, 33 
Round-headed apple-tree borer, 588 
Rusty-brown ])lum-louse, 655 

Salt-marsh caterpillar, 247 
Sanborn, C. E., 387, 665 
Sanders, J. G., 654 
Sanderson, E. D., 241; 320, 322, 406, 
430, 441, 558, 563, 597, 602, 613, 
615, 624 
San Jose scale, 4, 48, 538 
Sanninoidea exitiosa, 645 

opalescens, 645 
Saperda Candida, 588 
Sarcophaga carnaria, 107 
Saw-fly, raspberry, 472 
strawberry, 450 
sweet-potato, 437 
western grass-stem, 130 
wheat, 142 
Saw-toothed grain-beetle, 187 
Scale, oyster-shell, 592 
San Jos6, 538 
scurfy, 595 
terrapin, 654 
Scarabieidai, 79, 415, 518 
Schistoccrca americana, 27, 99 
Schizocerus ebenus, 437 

privatus, 438 
Schizoneura lanigera, 582 
panicola, 167 
Schizura concinna, 616 
Shoene, W. J., 347, 636 
Sciara, spp., 30!) 



682 



INDEX 



Scolytidjp, 200, 544, G53 
Scolytus rugulosus, 544 
Scott, W. M., 54, 365 
Screw-worm fly, 6 
Scurfy scale, 595 
Seed-corn maggot, 320 
Semasia nigricana, 328 
Semicolon butterfly, 280 
Sesiidse, 393, 459, 477, 497, 645 
Seventeen-year locust, 548 
Silvanus surinamensis, 187 
Simpson, C. B., 624 
Siphocoryne avense, 604, 607 
Sirrine, F. A., 318, 361, 373, 418, 428 
Sitotroga cerealella, 192 
Sharpshooters, 248 

glassy-winged, 249 
Sherman, Franklin, 374 
Slingerland, M. V., 128, 347, 409, 
422, 462, 464, 469, 478, 481, 501, 
515, 520, 530, 618, 621, 639, 641, 
645, 667 
Smith, J. B., 164, 195, 274, 282, 289, 
347, 379, 391, 430, 441, 452, 454, 
456, 459, 460, 466, 518, 597, 645 
Smith, R. I., 198, 368, 379, 397,. 400, 

582 
Snout -moths, 162 

hop-vine, 279 
meal, 192 
Snout-weevil, 175 
Snowy tree-cricket, 464 
Soap, whale-oil, 50 
Soldier-bugs, (il 1 

green, 252 
Solenopsis geininata, 269 
Soule, Carolin M., 525 
Southern grain-louse, 2, 150 
Sphecodina abbottii, 530 
Sphecius speciosus, 553 
Sphenophorus, 175 

cariosus, 178 
maidis, 178 
obscurus, 175 
ochreus, 178 
parvulus, 175 
pertinax, 178 



Sphenophorus, placidus, 178 
robustus, 178 
scoparius, 178 
sculptilis, 178 
Sphingida;, 228, 247, 525 
Sphinx, Abbott's, 530 
achemon, 526 
pandoras, 527 
white-lined, 528 
Spinach-aphis, 375 

flea-beetle, 335 
leaf-miner, 345 
Spined tobacco bug, 225 
Spiracle, 30 
Spht-w^rm, 237 
Sprayers, see pumps. 

compressed-air, 62 
gas, 70 
traction, 69 
Spray rods, 74 
Spring cankerworm, 570 
grain-aphis, 150 
Squash-bug, 388 

ladybird, 391 
-vine borer, 393 
Stalk-borer, 287 

potato, 285 
-worm, tobacco, 224 
Starnes, H. N., 645, 650 
Stedman, J. M., 404, 450, 576 
Stem-borer, clover, 202 
Stigmata, 30 
Stink-bugs, 252 
Stone, J. L., 128 

Stored products, insect injury to, 6 
Strainers, 77 

Strawberiy crown-borer, 447 
insects, 441 
leaf-roller, 452 
root-louse, 441 

-worms, 448 
saw-fly, 450 
weevil, 456 
Striped cucumber beetle, 379 
Structure of insects, 22 
Suck-fly, 226 
Sugar-beet webworm 332 



INDEX 



683 



Sulfur, 54 

dioxid, 58 
Swallow-tail butterfly, black, 411 
Sweet-potato beetle, two-striped, 433 
flea-beetle, 430 
root-borer, 438 
saw-flies, 437 
Symons, T. B., 654 
Synanthedon pictipes, 645 
Syrphidae, 12, 325 
Syrphus americanus, 14 
flies, 12, 14 
ribesii, 13 
Systena blanda, 402 

hudsonias, 335 
taeniata, 335, 402 
SystcEchus oreas, 106 

Tachina flies, 107, 117 
Tanglefoot, 56 

Tarnished plant-bug, 337, 404 
Taylor, E. P., 405, 576, 582, 597, 602, 

652, 658, 660, 665 
Tenebroides mauritanicus, 188 
Tent caterpillar, 608 
Tenthredinida;, 143, 437, 450, 472, 

478, 486, 487, 642 
Terrapin-bug, 368 

scale, 654 
Tetranychida^, 209 
Three-lined leaf -beetle, 303 
Thrips tabaci, 418 
Thysanoptera, 418 
Tineida?, 237, 616 
Tipula bicornis, 121 
costalis, 121 
hebes, 122 
Tipulidse, 121 
Tischeria malifoliella, 616 
Titus, E. G., 205, 208 
Tmetocera ocellana, 621 
Tobacco, as insecticide, 65 

bug, spined, 225 

bud worm, 181 

flea-beetle, 222, 296, 299 

fumigation, 58 

insect injury to, 4._ 



Tobacco,, insects, 222 

leaf-miner, 237 

stalk-worm, 224 

thrips, 240 

worms, 228 
Tomatoes, insects of, 285 
Tomato fruit-worm, 181, 304, see 

boll worm. 
Tomato-worm, 304, .src tobacco 

worms. 
Tortoise-beetles, 432 

argus, 436 
black-legged, 434 
golden, 435 
mottled, 436 
Tortricida;, 328, 452, 530,^621, 624, 628 
Towers for spraying, 77 
Toxoptera graminum, 150 
Tracheal system, 29 
Trap crops, 40 
Tree-cricket, snowy, 464 
Tree-hopper, buffalo, 547 
Trichobaris trinotata, 285 
Trogositidae, 188 

Trichogramma pretiosa, 244, 254 
Trombidium locustaruni, 105 
Trouvelot, Leopold, 564 
Trypetidff, 490, 632, 657 
Tuber-worm, potato, 289 
Twelve-spotted asparagus beetle, 427 
Twig-borer, peach, 650 
Tychea brevicornis, 331 
Tyloderma fragraris, 447 
Typhlocyba comes, 520 
Typophorus caneUus, 448 

Uranotes mellinus, 248, 319 

^'olunteer plants, 35 

Washburn, F. L., 113, 148. 190, 289, 

347 
Wavy-striped flea-beetle, 375 
Webster, F. M., 2, 41, 89, 126, 129, 
130, 133, 136, 138, 139, 143, 145, 
147, 155, 157, 164, 169, 202, 205, 
208, 459, 463, 466, 509, 606 



G84 



INDEX 



Webster, ]{. ],., :V2:], 'M^ 
\\vh\\\nn\- curii-rout, Idl 
fall, 553 

garden, 247, 406 
imported cabbage, 365 
sugar-beet, 332 
Weed, C. M., 371, 388, 666 
Weeds, 34 
Weevil, 186 

alfalfa, 205 
destruetidii of, l'.)7 
Mexican cotton 1)()11, 261 
strawberry, 456 
Western corn root-worm, 2, 33 
grass-stem saw-Hy, 130 
Wlialeoil soap, 50 
\\'hcat joint-worm, 37, 136 



\\lieat Miaggols, 132 

midge, 145 

saw-flies, 142 

saw-fly borer, 129 
-stem maggot, 132 

straw- worm, 138 
White grubs, 79, 332 
White-lined sphinx, 247, 528 
W^ilson, H. F., 653 
Winthemia 4-pustulata, 117 
Wireworms, 81, 332 
Woglum, R. S., 543 
Woolly apple aphis, 582 
Woolly-bear caterpillar, 247 
Woodworth, C. W., 543, 645 

Yellow-neckeil api)le-caterpillar, ()13 



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Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, $5 00 

Riemer's Shaft-sinking under Difficult Conditions. (Corning and Peele.).8vo. 3 00 

Siebert and Biggin's Modem Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, 1 50 

Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50 

Soper's Air and Ventilation of Subways 12mo, 2 50 

* Tracy's Exercises in Surveying 12mo, mor. 1 00 

Tracy's Plane Surveying 16mo, mpr. 3 00 

Venable's Garbage Crematories in America 8vo, 2 00 

Methods and Devices for Bacterial Treatment of Sewage 8vo, 3 00 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 

Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 00 

\/aw of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and 

Architecture 8vo, 5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 

Warren's Stereotomy — Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50 

* Waterbury's Vest-Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 

2JX5f inches, mor. 1 00 

* Enlarged Edition, Including Tables mor. 1 50 

Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments. 

16mo, mor. 1 25 

Wilson's Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50 

BRIDGES AND ROOFS. 

Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges.. 8vo, 

* Thames River Bridge Oblong paper. 

Burr and Falk's Design and Construction of Metallic Bridges Svo, 

Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations 8vo, 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. II Sma 4to , 

Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations Svo, 

Greene's Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 

Bridge Trusses 8vo, 

Roof Trusses 8 vo, 

Grimm's Secondary Stresses in Bridge Trusses 8vo, 

Heller's Stresses in Structures and the Accompanying Deformations.. . .8vo, 

Howe's Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo. 

Symmetrical Masonry Arches Svo, 

Treatise on Arches Svo, 

* Hudson's Deflections and Statically Indeterminate Stresses Small 4to, 

* Plate Girder Design Svo, 

* Jacoby's Structural Details, or Elements of Design in Heavy Framing. Svo, 
Johnson, Bryan and Tumeaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of 

Modem Framed Structures Small 4to, 

* Johnson, Bryan and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of 

Modern Framed Structures. New Edition. Part I Svo, 

* Part II. New Edition Svo, 

Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges: 

Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses Svo, 

Part II. Graphic Statics Svo, 

Part III. Bridge Design Svo, 

Part IV. Higher Structures Svo, 

Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and 
Arches Svo, 

Waddell's De Pontibus, Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers 16mo, mor. 

* Specifications for Steel Bridges 12mo, 

Waddell and Harrington's Bridge Engineering. (In Preparation.) 

HYDRAULICS. 

Barnes's Ice Formation Svo, 3 00 

Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from 

an Orifice. (Trautwine.) Svo, 2 00 

Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics Svo, 5 00 

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Church's Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels. 

Oblong 4to, paper, $1 50 

Hydraulic Motors 8vo, 2 00 

Mechanics of Fluids (Being Part IV of Mechanics of Engineering). .Svo, 3 00 

Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems 16mo, mor. 2 50 

Plather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12mo, 3 00 

Folwell's Water-supply Engineering Svo, 4 00 

Frizell's Water-power Svo, 5 00 

Fuertes's Water and Public Health 12mo, 1 50 

Water-filtration Works 12mo, 2 50 

'Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in 

Rivers and Other Channels. (Hering and Trautwine.) Svo, 4 00 

Hazen's Clean Water and How to Get It Large 12mo, 1 50 

Filtration of Public Water-sdppliss Svo, 3 00 

Hazelhurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works Svo, 2 50 

Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal 

Conduits Svo, 2 00 

Hoyt and Grover's River Discharge Svo, 2 00 

Hubbard and Kiersted's Water-works Management and Maintenance. 

Svo. 4 00 

* Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power. 

Svo, 3 00 
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand- 
point. ) Svo, 4 00 

Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics Svo, 5 00 

* Molitor's Hydraulics of Rivers, Weirs and Sluices Svo, 2 00 

* Morrison and Brodie's High Masonry Dam Design Svo, 1 50 

* Richards's Laboratory Notes on Industrial Water Analysis Svo, 50 

Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water- 
supply. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged Large Svo, 6 00 

* Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Rivers 4to, 6 00 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies Svo, 5 00 

* Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams. 6th Ed., enlarged 4to, 6 00 

Water-Supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895 4to, 10 00 

Whipple's Value of Pure Water Large 12mo, 1 00 

Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables Svo, 1 50 

Wilson's Irrigation Engineering Svo, 4 00 

Wood's Turbines Svo, 2 50 



MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 

Baker's Roads and Pavements Svo, 5 00 

Treatise on Masonry Construction Svo, 5 00 

Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 00 

Blanchard and Drowne's Highway Engineering. (In Press.) 

Bleininger's Manufacture of Hydraulic Cement. (In Preparation.) 

Bottler's Varnish Making. (Sabin.) (In Press.) 

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering Svo, 7 50 

Byrne's Highway Construction Svo, 5 00 

Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction. 

16mo. 3 00 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering Svo, 6 00 

Mechanics of Solids (Being Parts I, II, III of Mechanics of Engineer- 
ing Svo, 4 50 

Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. 

Vol. I. Kinematics, Statics, Kinetics Small 4to, 7 50 

Vol. II. The Stresses in Framed Structures, Strength of Materials and 

Theory of Fle.xures Small 4to, 10 00 

Eckel's Building Stones and Clays. (In Press.) 

* Cements, Limes, and Plasters Svo, 6 00 

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations Svo, 3 50 

* Greene's Structural Mechanics Svo, 2 50 

HoUey's Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products. (In Press.) 

* Lead and Zinc Pigments Large 12mo. 3 00 

♦ Hubbard's Dust Preventives and Road Binders Svo, 3 00 

.8 



Johnson's (C. M.) Rapid Methods for the Chemical Analysis of Special Steels, 

Steel-making Alloys and Graphite Large 12mo, 

Johnson's (J. B.) Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 

Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 

Lowe's Paints for Steel Structures 12mo'; 

Maire's Modern Pigments and their Vehicles 12mo, 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 

* Strength of Materials 1 2mo, 

Metcalf 's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users 12mo, 

Morrison's Highway Engineering Svo, 

* Murdock's Strength of Materials 12mo, 

Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations Svo, 

Rice's Concrete Block Manufacture Svo, 

Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavement Svo, 

Richey's Building Foreman's Pocket Book and Ready Reference. 16 mo, mor. 

* Cement Workers' and Plasterers' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready 

Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 

Handbook for Superintendents of Construction 16mo, mor. 

* Stone and Brick Masons' Edition (Building Mechanics' Ready 

Reference Series) 16mo, mor. 

* Ries's Clays: Their Occurrence, Properties, and Uses Svo, 

* Ries and Leighton's History of the Clay-working Industry of the United 

States Svo. 

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paint and Varnish Svo, 

* Smith's Strength of Material 12m.o, 

Snow's Principal Species of Wood Svo, 

Spalding's Hydraulic Cement 12mo, 

Text-book on Roads and Pavements 12mo, 

* Taylor and Thompson's Extracts on Reinforced Concrete Design Svo, 

Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced Svo, 

Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts Svo, 

Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy.. . .Svo, 

Part II. Iron and Steel Svo, 

Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their 

Constituents Svo, 

Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials Svo, 

Tumeaure and Maurer's Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction. 

Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged Svo, 

Waterbury's Cement Laboratory Manual 12mo, 

Laboratory Manual for Testing Materials of Construction. (In Press.)' 
Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on 

the Preservation of Timber Svo, 2 00 

Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings; Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and 

Steel Svo, 4 00 

RAILWAY ENGINEERING. 

Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3X5 inches, mor. 1 25 

Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 

Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location 16mo, mor. 

* Burt's Railway Station Service 12mo, 

Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book 16mo, mor. 

Crandall's Railway and Other Earthwork Tables Svo, 

Crandall and Barnes's Railroad Surveying 16mo, mor. 

* Crockett's Methods for Earthwork Computations Svo, 

Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad. (1S79) Paper, 

Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 

Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . 16mo, mor. 
Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em- 
bankments Svo, 

Ives and Hilts's Probleivis in Surveying, Railroad Surveying and Geodesy 

IRmo, mor. 
Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers 16mo, 

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Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers 16mo, mor. $3 00* 

* Orrock's Railroad Structures and Estimates 8vo, 3 OO 

Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers 16mo, mor. 3 OO 

Raymond's Railroad Field Geometry 16mo, mor. 2 00' 

Elements of Railroad Engineering 8vo, 3 50- 

Railroad Engineer's Field Book. (In Preparation.) 

Roberts' Track Formulae and Tables 16mo, mor. 3 00- 

Searles's Field Engineering 16mo, mor. 3 00 

Railroad Spiral 16mo, mor. 1 50 

Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork 8vo, 1 50 

Webb's Economics of Railroad Construction Large 12mo, 2 50 

Railroad Construction 16mo, mor. 5 00 

'Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Large 12mo, 5 00- 

■Wilson's Elements of Railroad-Track and Construction 12mo, 2 00- 

DRAWING 

Barr and Wood's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, ? 00- 

* " " ■' Abridged Ed 8vo, 150 

* Bartlett and Johnson's Engineering Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 1 50 

Blessing and Darling's Descriptive Geometry. (In Press.) 

Elements of Drawing. (In Press.) 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, 1 00 

CooHdge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi- 
neers Oblong 4to, 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application 8vo, 

Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Jones's Machine Design: 

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 

Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 

* Kimball and Barr's Machine Design 8vo, 

MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 

Kinematics; or. Practical Mechanism 8vo, 

Mechanical Drawing 4to, 

Velocity Diagrams 8vo, 

McLeod's Descriptive Geometry Large 12mo, 

* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting •. 8vo, 

Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 

Moyer's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 

Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 

* Reid's Mechanical Drawing. (Elementary and Advanced.) 8vo, 

Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo, 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 

Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 

Smith (A. W.) and Marx's Machine Design 8vo, 

Smith's (R. S.) Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 

* Titsworth's Elements of Mechanical Drawing Oblong 8vo, 

Tracy and North's Descriptive Geometry. (In Press.) 

Warren's Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective. .8vo, 

Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 

Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. . . . 12mo, 

General Problems of Shades and Shadows 8vo, 

Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Forms and 

Shadow 12mo, 

Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing 12mo, 

Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry 12mo, 

Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and 
Klein.) 8vo, 

Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying 8vo, 

* Wilson's (V. T.) Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 

Free-hand Lettering 8 vo. 

Free-hand Perspective 8 vo, 

Woolf s Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large 8vo, 

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ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS. 

* Abegg's Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation, (von Ende.') 12mo, $1 25 

Andrews's Hand-book for Street Railway Engineers 3X5 inches mor. 1 2S 

i^nthony and Ball's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measure- 
ments 12mo, 

Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) ... .Large 12mo, 

Benjamin's History of Electricity 8vo, 

Betts's Lead Refining and Electrolysis 8vo, 

Burgess and Le Chatelier's Measurement of High Temperatures. Third 

Edition. (In Press.) 
Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.).8vo, 

* Collins's Manual of Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony 12mo, 

Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph Svo, 

* Danneel's Electrochemistry. (Merriam.) 12mo, 

Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . . . 16mo, mor. 
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery), (von Ende.) 

12mo, 

Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) Svo, 

Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power 12mo, 

* Getman's Introduction to Physical Science 12mo, 

Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay ) Svo, 

* Hanchett's Alternating Currents 12mo, 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) 16mo, mor. 

* Hobart and Ellis's High-speed Dynamo Electric Machinery Svo, 

Holman's Precision of Measurements Svo, 

Telescope-Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests Large Svo, 

* Hutchinson's High-Efficiency Electrical lUuminants and Illumination. 

Large 12mo, 
Jones's Electric Ignition. (In Press.) 
Karapetoff's Experimental Electrical Engineering: 

* Vol. I Svo, 

* Vol. II Svo, 

Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-current Machines Svo, 

Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) Svo, 

Lob's Electrochemistry of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) Svo, 

* Lyndon's Development and Electrical Distribution of Water Power. .Svo, 

* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols, I. and II. Svo, each, 

* Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light Svo, 

* Morgan's Physical Chemistry for Electrical Engineers 12mo, 

* Norris's Introduction to the Study of Electrical Engineering Svo, 

Norris and Dennison's Course of Problems on the Electrical Characteristics of 

Circuits and Machines. (In Press.) 

* Parshall and Hobart's Electric Machine Design 4to, half mor, 12 50' 

Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric. New Edition. 

Large 12mo, 

* Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee — -Kinzbrunner.) . .8vo, 

Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. I Svo, 

Schapper's Laboratory Guide for Students in Physical Chemistry 12mo, 

* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat Svo, 

* Timbie's Elements of Electricity Large 12mo, 

Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Large 12mo, 

Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining Svo, 

* Waters's Commercial Dynamo Design Svo, 

LAW. 

* Brennan's Hand-book of Useful Legal Information for Business Men. 

16mo, mor. 

* Davis's Elements of Law Svo, 

* Treatise on the Military Law of United States Svo, 

* Dudley's Military Law and the Procedure of Courts-martial. . Large 12mo, 

Manual for Courts-martial 16mo, mor. 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence Svo, 

Sheep, 
Wait's Law of Contracts Svo, 

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Wait's Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and 

Architecture 8vo, $5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 

MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, 

Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry. (Bocher.) 12mo, 

* Buchanan's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry 8vo, 

Byerly's Harmonic Functions 8vo, 

Chandler's Elements of the Infinitesimal Calculus 12mo, 

* Coffin's Vector Analysis 12mo, 

Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations 12mo, 

* Dickson's College Algebra Large 12mo, 

* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large 12mo, 

Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Application 8vo, 

Fiske's Functions of a Complex Variable 8vo, 

Halsted's Elementary Synthetic Geometry 8vo, 

Elements of Geometry 8vo, 

* Rational Geometry 12mo, 

Synthetic Projective Geometry 8vo, 

* Hancock's Lectures on the Theory of Elliptic Functions 8vo, 

Hyde's Grassmann's Space Analysis 8vo, 

* Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size, paper, 

* 100 copies, 
* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 X 10 inches, 

* 10 copies, 
Johnson's (W. W.) Abridged Editions of Differential and Integral Calculus. 

Large 12mo, 1 vol. 

Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates 12mo, 

Differential Equations 8vo, 

Elementary Treatise on Dififerentia! Calculus .Large 12mo, 

Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large 12mo, 

* Theoretical Mechanics 12mo, 

Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares 12mo, 

Treatise on Differential Calculus Large 12mo, 

Treatise on the Integral Calculus Large 12mo, 

Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations. . .Large 12mo, 

* Karapetofl's Engineering Applications of Higher Mathematics. Large 12mo, 75 
Koch's Practical Mathematics. (In Press.) 

Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . 12mo, 2 00 

* Le Messurier's Key to Professor W. W. Johnson's Differential Equations. 

Small 8vo, 1 75 

* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo, 1 00 

* Ludlow and Bass's Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other 

Tables 8vo, 3 00 

* Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, 2 00 

Macfarlane's Vector Analysis and Quaternions 8vo, 1 00 

McMahon's Hyperbolic Functions 8vo, 1 00 

Manning's Irrational Numbers and their Representation by Sequences and 

Series 12mo, 1 25 

Mathematical Monographs. Edited by Mansfield Merriman and Robert 

S. Woodward Octavo, each 1 00 

No. 1. History of Modern Mathematics, by David Eugene Smith. 
No. 2. Synthetic Projective Geometry, by George Bruce Halsted. 
No. 3. Determinants, by Laenas Gifford Weld. No. 4. Hyper- 
bolic Functions, by James McMahon. No. 5. Harmonic Func- 
tions, by William E. Byerly. No. 6. Grassmann's Space Analysis, 
by Edward W. Hyde. No. 7. Probability and Theory of Errors, 
by Robert S. Woodward. No. 8. Vector Analysis and Quaternions, 
by Alexander Macfarlane. No. 9. Differential Equations, by 
William Woolsey Johnson. No. 10. The Solution of Equations, 
by Mansfield Merriman. No. 11. Functions of a Complex Variable, 
by Thomas S. Fiske. 

Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 00 

Solution of Equations 8vo, 1 00 

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* Moritz's Elements of Plane Trigonometry 8vo, 

Rice and Johnson's Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols, in one. 

Large 12mo, 

Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus Large 12mo, 

Smith's History of Modern Mathematics 8vo, 

* Veblen and Lennes's Introduction to the Real Infinitesimal Analysis of One 

Variable 8vo, 

* Waterbury's Vest Pocket Hand-book of Mathematics for Engineers. 

2tX5f inches, mor. 

* Enlarged Edition, Including Tables mor. 

Weld's Determinants 8vo, 

Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 

Woodward's ProbabiUty and Theory of Errors 8vo, 



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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 



MATERIALS OP ENGINEERING. STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 



Bacon's Forge Practice 12mo 

Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo 

Barr and^ Wood's Kinematics of Machinery Svo 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing Svo 

* " " " Abridged Ed Svo 

* Bartlett and Johnson's Engineering Descriptive Geometry Svo 

* Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal Svo 

•Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating Buildings Svo 

* Carpenter and Diederichs's Experimental Engineering Svo 

* Clerk's The Gas, Petrol and Oil Engine Svo 

Compton's First Lessons in Metal Working 12mo 

Compton and De Groodt's Speed Lathe 12mo 

Coolidge's Manual of Drawing Svo, paper 

Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En 

gineers ; Oblong 4to 

•Cromwell's Treatise on Belts and Pulleys 12mo 

Treatise on Toothed Gearing 12mo 

■ Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making 12mo 

Durley's Kinematics of Machines Svo 

Planders's Gear-cutting Machinery Large 12mo 

Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power 12mo 

Rope Driving 12mo 

Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers 12mo 

Goss's Locomotive Sparks Svo 

* Greene's Pumping Machinery Svo 

Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) 16mo, mor 

* Hobart and Ellis's High Speed Dynamo Electric Machinery Svo 

Hutton's Gas Engine Svo 

Jamison's Advanced Mechanical Drawing Svo 

Elements of Mechanical Drawing Svo 

Jones's Gas Engine Svo 

Machine Design: 

Part I. Kinematics of Machinery Svo 

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mission Svo 

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Mechanical Drawing 4to 

■Velocity Diagrams Svo 

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MacFarland's Standard Reduction Factors for Gases 8vo, $1 50 

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mission Svo, 2 .50' 

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Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 00 

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